CONSERVATION STATUS
CITES: Appendix I
(What is CITES?)
IUCN Red List: L. chrysomelas: EN
(What is Red List?)
Key: EN = Endangered
(Click on species name to see IUCN Red List entry, including detailed status assessment information.)
Photo: Luiz Claudio Marigo
Some of the problems contributing to their status in the wild include
massive deforestation for commercial agriculture crops, habitat fragmentation,
and encroaching human populations. Export for the international pet trade may
also be a factor contributing to declining golden-headed lion tamarin populations.
CONSERVATION THREATS & POTENTIAL SOLUTIONS
Threat: Human-Induced Habitat Loss and Degradation
The extensive forests that used to blanket the state of Bahia, Brazil
have been decreased to about 2% of their former range, being
cleared for human activities including farming, ranching, mining, and
urban sprawl (Mallinson 2001). In the western part of the state, cattle
ranching dominates the economy and has resulted in widespread
elimination of golden-headed lion tamarin habitat (de S. Pinto & Rylands
1997; Rylands et al. 2002b). In the eastern part of the state, where
the majority of the remaining population survives, habitat destruction
for agricultural crops is rampant. Traditionally, cocoa plantations
dominated this region and many cocoa farmers continued to maintain more
old growth forest than cocoa trees on their farms because of a method of
growing cacao trees called cabruca. This is a system of shade cropping
in which the middle and understory trees of intact forests are removed
and replaced with cacao trees. While this reduces the number of lianas and eliminates much of the
forest level where golden-headed lion tamarins live, there are still old
growth trees that harbor sleeping sites and some foraging opportunities
(Rylands et al. 2002b; Raboy et al. 2004). In the late 1970s, high
prices of cocoa resulted in rapid expansion of cacao plantations.
Unfortunately, high prices did not last and from 1986 to 1992,
international cocoa prices bottomed out at the same time as witch's
broom disease began to spread through existing plantations. In 1989,
the epidemic of witch's broom disease, a fungus that attacks the cocoa
and can only be combated by pruning the affected branches or burning the
entire tree, forced farm owners to abandon their plantations, log the
existing old growth on their land, and switch to alternative crops not
grown in the same shade-cropping system (Rylands et al. 2002b). Old growth forest in cacao plantations that once was still
useful to golden-headed lion tamarins was being destroyed either to
harvest the trees for lumber, clear land for cattle ranching, or was
replaced by other crops including coconut palms, African oil palms and
peppers (Rylands et al. 2002b).
Potential Solutions
The rapid rate of habitat destruction within the range of the
golden-headed lion tamarins indicates that their numbers will not remain
high for long and suggests that forest fragmentation will continue to
whittle away at the existing population much like the pattern seen in
golden lion tamarins (L. rosalia)
(Oliver & Santos 1991; Rylands 1993-1994; de S.
Pinto & Rylands 1997). Actions must be taken immediately to stop
habitat destruction and begin to reconnect patches of forest that still
harbor golden-headed lion tamarins (Oliver & Santos; de S. Pinto &
Rylands 1997).
The only significant protected area in which golden-headed lion tamarins
are found is Una Biological Reserve, a 94
km² (36.3 mi²) park created
specifically for their protection in 1980. Though the original
governmental decree was for an area of 114 km² (44.0 mi²), this amount
of land was not purchased immediately and for the last 25 years, the
park has been growing incrementally as the government continues to
acquire land (de S. Pinto & Rylands 1997; Cruz pers. comm.). Forests surrounding Una are
still relatively intact and it should be a priority to purchase them and
integrate them into the biological reserve because, as it exists now,
Una is not large enough to support a self-sustaining population of
golden-headed lion tamarins (Rylands 1993-1994; de S. Pinto & Rylands
1997). If purchase and integration is not possible, it will be essential to work with land owners to persuade them to initiate tamarin-friendly land use patterns. Existing programs to educate private land owners in the areas around the reserve should continue while corridors should be grown connecting remaining old growth forests on private lands with Una forests. (de S. Pinto & Rylands 1997; Mallinson
2001). The Landowners' Environmental Education Programme began in the
early 1990s and focused on educating the community surrounding the
reserve about the importance of protecting not only the reserve itself
but contiguous forests. On over 70% of the farms in the area,
conservation activities have been undertaken including sustainable
agricultural practices that focus on preserving forests and
golden-headed lion tamarin habitat (Mallinson 2001). School children,
farm workers, hunters, and forest guards have been involved in the
education program focusing on conservation, property rights, and land
use as well as developing alternative sustainable economic undertakings
(Mallinson 2001). As land is purchased for more forest reserves or
protected areas in areas other than Una, programs like this should
certainly be part of the transition from private to reserve land so that
communities neighboring new reserves understand the importance of their
actions on the golden-headed lion tamarin's habitat and ultimate
survival.
Research on the use of cabruca by golden-headed lion tamarins indicates
that they will use this forest type more frequently than secondary forests as there are higher
abundances of fruit, flowers, animal prey, and sleeping sites in cocoa
plantations than in degraded, successional ecosystems (Raboy et al.
2004). Farmers that maintain cabruca with primary forest as the shade source
rather than converting their land to a monoculture system provide better
habitat for golden-headed lion tamarins. A reasonable compromise
between farmers and conserving habitat might include economic incentives
in order to maintain this system as opposed to logging the primary
forest and converting the land to cattle ranching, in which no available
habitat is left for the tamarins. Alternative economic opportunities in
and around Una involve the establishment of an ecotourism facility.
Trails, a canopy walkway, and a visitors' education center have all been
built for tourists to enjoy Una and the unique flora and fauna found
there (Mallinson 2001). Responsible expansion of this program and
stronger marketing both within Brazil and abroad might make it a more
profitable venture for community members.
Threat: Harvesting (hunting/gathering)
In the early 1980s, large numbers of golden-headed lion tamarins were
illegally exported from Brazil to countries like Belgium, France, French
Guiana, and Japan in order to supply the booming pet trade and exotic
animal collectors (Mallinson 2001; Rylands et al. 2002a; b). The
Brazilian environmental agency IBAMA concentrated efforts on recovery of
illegally exported tamarins and, in 1986, was able to begin a captive
breeding colony with seized animals (Mallinson 2001). The large numbers
of recovered animals helped establish a genetically diverse founder
population from which to begin captive breeding programs in Brazil,
Europe, Japan, and the United States (Ballou et al. 2002). Seizures of
golden-headed lion tamarins continue today, though not nearly at as high
of a rate as was seen in the 1980s. The international demand for these
animals as pets still exists, and though it is not nearly as high,
coupled with the other threats to the population, it may affect the future
potential of the population to survive.
Generally hunters in this region are either leisure hunters or
subsistence hunters and though golden-headed lion tamarins are seldom
hunted for food, there are a few reports that hunters kill and eat them
(Oliver & Santos 1991; dos Santos & Blanes 1997).
Potential solutions
Administrators of Una Biological Reserve
continue to confiscate illegally kept golden-headed lion tamarins and,
in 1999, the captive population was over 600 individuals (Ballou et al.
2002). One effort to decrease the number of animals taken as pets or
killed for food is education. When poachers or hunters are encountered,
they receive information about the importance of conservation and the
Brazilian laws that forbid the activity (Padua et al. 2002). This
simple message has been successful in decreasing hunting rates by
50% according to IBAMA (dos Santos & Blanes 1997; Padua et al.
2002). Not only are hunters directly confronted if caught, education
programs for all land owners and community members have been aimed at
educating people about the endemism present in nearby the
forests (dos Santos & Blanes 1997). Armed with information about
conservation of their unique surroundings, community members begin to
see golden-headed lion tamarins not as food or a potential source of
income, but as an important part of the ecosystem and part of the local
heritage.
Threat: Accidental Mortality
There is scant data available on accidental mortality but there have
been some unpublished reports of golden-headed lion tamarins getting
caught in snare traps set for other animals and accidentally being
killed (Oliver & Santos 1991).
Threat: Natural Disasters
In the eastern half of their range, golden-headed lion tamarin habitat is
characterized by wet conditions throughout the year, but in 1995, a
severe drought occurred and resulted in a serious wildfire that
threatened Una Biological Reserve (Anonymous 1995). The fire was
started when neighboring farmers lost control of a fire they started to
help clear their fields, a common technique used in South America to
clear land of growth and add nutrients to the soil before planting
crops.
Potential solutions
The Landowners' Environmental Education Programme needs to incorporate
information about burning fields and the potential harm that can be done
to neighboring forests, especially under certain environmental
conditions. While the newly established buffer zone between the reserve
and other lands might decrease the chance of a fire spreading too
quickly to the center of the reserve, in some situations, Una, and the
golden-headed lion tamarins that live there, might be subject to serious
natural disasters.
Threat: Intrinsic Factors
The limited data available on fecundity and mortality in golden-headed
lion tamarins suggests that the population grows more slowly and is subject to
higher levels of predation compared to golden lion
tamarins (L. rosalia)
(Dietz 1997). Wild golden-headed lion tamarins have never been
seen producing more than one litter per year, so population growth is
relatively slow. Furthermore, disappearance rates are high within the
population at Una Biological Reserve and may be attributed to density of
predators. Mammalian and avian predators are a threat to these small
animals, and when forest conditions are right, the predator population
can thrive and have a negative effect on golden-headed lion tamarins
(Dietz 1997). Unidentified disease is another contributor to mortality
at Una. Certain illnesses can sweep through a group and kill all of the
members within a few days (Dietz 1997).
The nature of habitat fragmentation throughout the golden-headed lion
tamarin's range will probably lead to problems associated with
inbreeding including inbreeding depression, genetic drift, lack of
genetic diversity, and lower recruitment rates. The total population at
Una is estimated to be between 240 and 460 individuals. Though there is
a wide discrepancy between estimates, the population is still thought to
be less than the 500 breeding individuals necessary to maintain genetic
diversity over the long term (Dietz et al. 1996). Additionally, the
population at Una represents the largest population in the most intact
forest in the entire range of the golden-headed lion tamarin, so it is
clear that other subpopulations are subject to loss of genetic diversity
over time.
Potential solutions
Having a healthy predator population within Una is essential for the
functioning of the ecosystem, but other efforts to decrease
golden-headed lion tamarin mortality have been undertaken. Current
studies require that habituated
animals be captured every six months to replace radio transmitter
batteries. At this semiannual event, veterinary care is provided
for the animals as a routine way to check their health and evaluate any
concerns (Dietz et al. 1996). By monitoring the health of the animals
over time, changes can be noted and care can be provided in certain
circumstances. Monitoring and attempting to provide care for sick
tamarins is an expensive and relatively futile process compared to
eliminating sources of inbreeding
depression that might cause certain individuals to be at higher risk
for health problems. It is essential that Una does not become an island of forest, cutting off dispersing golden-headed lion tamarins from
entering new territories, starting new groups, or immigrating into the
breeding position of existing groups. Efforts to connect patches of
forest throughout the range will increase the likelihood of gene flow in
the population and will help to decrease the chances of the loss of
genetic diversity (Dietz et al. 1996). Currently, studies to evaluate and
prioritze areas for forest linkage are underway and will hopefully lead to
management strategies and eventual reconnection of forest fragments (Raboy pers. comm.).
Threat: Human Disturbance
Following the drop in cocoa prices and the spread of witch's broom
disease, unemployment rates soared in the region surrounding Una
Biological Reserve. Displaced workers swarmed to the forests, both
protected and unprotected, clearing the land for subsistence agriculture
because of their lack of economic prospects (Padua et al. 2002).
Additionally, cocoa plantation owners began to cut the primary forests
of the cabruca and sell the lumber to supplement income. This resulted
in an increased rate of forest fragmentation both within Una and in the
surrounding areas and directly impacting the golden-headed lion tamarin
(Padua et al. 2002).
Potential solutions
Economic opportunity that does not involve resource extraction and
deforestation of Una needs to be created or sustainable use of resources
needs to be highlighted in education programs for community members.
One solution that has been implemented is the establishment of a buffer
zone surrounding the reserve. This 10 km (6.21 mi)-wide strip of
vegetation borders the perimeter of the reserve and serves to protect
the inner park from invasion of squatters, hunters and poachers through
environmental education, agricultural outreach, and studies of land use in the region
(Mallinson 2001; Raboy pers. comm.).
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Content last modified: July 20, 2005
Written by Kristina Cawthon Lang. Reviewed by Becky Raboy.
Cite this page as:
Cawthon Lang KA. 2005 July 20. Primate Factsheets: Golden-headed lion tamarin (Leontopithecus chrysomelas) Conservation . <http://pin.primate.wisc.edu/factsheets/entry/golden-headed_lion_tamarin/cons>. Accessed 2013 May 18.
