Life span: approx. 25 years
Total population: Unknown
Regions: South America
Gestation: 128 days (4.2 months)
Height: 333 mm (M), 331 mm (F)
Weight: 1017 g (M), 877 g (F)
TAXONOMY
Suborder: Haplorrhini
Infraorder: Simiiformes
Family: Pitheciidae
Subfamily: Callicebinae
Genus: Callicebus
Species: C. aureipalatii, C. baptista, C. bernhardi, C. brunneus, C. caligatus, C. cinerascens, C. cupreus, C. discolor, C. donacophilus, C. dubius, C. hoffmannsi, C. modestus, C. moloch, C. oenanthe, C. olallae, C. ornatus, C. pallescens, C. stephennashi
Other names: titi monkey, luca luca, lucachi; callicèbe
(French); springaffe (German); zogue-zogue (Spanish); C. aureipalatii: golden
palace monkey, Madidi titi monkey; C. baptista: Baptista lake titi; C. bernhardi:
Prince Bernhard's titi monkey; C. brunneus: brown titi monkey; brun springapa
(Swedish); C. caligatus: booted titi, chestnut-bellied titi; brunbröstad
springapa (Swedish); C. cinerascens: ashy black titi, ashy titi, ashy-grey titi;
askgrå springapa (Swedish); C. cupreus: coppery titi monkey, red titi monkey;
callicébe roux (French); roter springaffe, kopferfürbiger springaffe (German);
kopparspringapa, röd springapa (Swedish); C. discolor: red titi; socayo, songo songo
(Spanish); C. donacophilus: Bolivian grey titi, Bolivian titi monkey, white-eared
titi; vitörad springapa (Swedish); C. dubius: doubtful titi monkey, dubious titi,
Hershkovitz's titi; vitpannad springapa (Swedish); C. hoffmannsi: Hoffmann's titi
monkey; gulbröstad springapa, Hoffmanns springapa (Swedish); C. modestus:
Bolivian titi, modest titi, Rio Beni titi, mono tití (Spanish); Boliviansk
springapa, gråbrun springapa (Swedish); C. moloch: dusky titi, red-bellied titi;
grijze springaap (Dutch); titi molock (French); grå springapa, mörk springapa,
orabassn (Swedish); C. oenanthe: Andean titi monkey, Rio Mayo titi; sugkamat
(Aguaruna); bergsspringapa (Swedish); C. olallae: Beni titi monkey, Olalla's
titi, Ollala brothers' titi; mono tití (Spanish); benispringapa, Olallas
springapa (Swedish); C. ornatus: ornate titi monkey; C. pallescens: white-coated
titi; C. stephennashi: Stephen Nash's titi monkey.
Callicebus brunneusPhoto: Kevin Schafer
The taxonomic arrangement of this genus is debated (see van Roosmalen et al.
2002). Groves (2001) places titis into four groups, subsuming the Personatus
group of van Roosmalen et al. (2002) under the Moloch group. Kobayashi (1995)
and van Roosmalen et al. (2002) place the titis into five taxonomic groups;
Torquatus, Personatus, Moloch, Cupreus and Donacophilus groups. However, the
species in the Personatus group according to Kobayashi (1995) and van Roosmalen
et al. (2002) are separated from the other nearest Callicebus species by around
1,000 km (621.4 mi) (van Roosmalen et al. 2002). In addition, the members of
their Torquatus group are differentiated from the other groups by habitat and
ecology (van Roosmalen et al. 2002). For these reasons, the members of the
Torquatus and Personatus groups according to Kobayashi (1995) and van Roosmalen
et al. (2002) will be addressed elsewhere and only the members of their Moloch,
Cupreus and Donacophilus groups as defined by Kobayashi (1995) and van Roosmalen
et al. (2002) will be considered here. The Cupreus group contains C. caligatus,
C. cupreus, C. discolor, C. dubius, C. ornatus,
and C. stephennashi. The Moloch
group consists of C. baptista, C. bernhardi, C. brunneus,
C. cinerascens, C. hoffmannsi, and C. moloch.
Finally, the Donacophilus group is made up of C. donacophilus, C.modestus,
C. oenanthe, C. olallae, and C. pallescens (van
Roosmalen et al. 2002). The recently described C. aureipalatii shows physical
similarities to members of the Cupreus group but its distribution borders that
of members of the Moloch group (Wallace et al. 2006). In this factsheet when
titi monkeys are referred to, data about species from the Torquatus and Personatus
groups are omitted. In addition, the discussed species are grouped together,
primarily due to a lack of information about the majority of the species and
presumable similarities in ecology and behavior.
MORPHOLOGY
Titi monkeys are small to medium-sized primates, typically about the size of a
rabbit (Hershkovitz 1990; Kobayashi 1995). They do not have
prehensile tails
and are not sexually dimorphic
(Hershkovitz 1990). Pelage
and body coloration
differs markedly between species of titi monkeys, but all species typically have
thick fur or are somewhat shaggy in appearance (Hershkovitz 1990). All species
can be differentiated based on differences in pelage, body color and pattern
(Hershkovitz 1988). Body and extremity pelage can range from blackish, brown,
grey to orange, red, or yellow and combinations of the colors. In addition,
some species have dorsal surfaces contrasting with the rest of their body, often
a lighter shade, while others are fairly uniform in color across their body.
The tail sometimes contrasts with the rest of the body and some species have
contrasting ear tufts (Rowe 1996).
C. donacophilus is characterized by body and limbs that range from grey
agouti
to orange agouti with entirely orange chest and belly and white ear tufts.
C. cupreus sideburns, ventral surfaces and inner extremities are reddish. This
coloration contrasts sharply with the animal's dorsal surfaces including its
tail and head, which are brown. C. moloch is colored in much the same pattern
as C. cupreus but its sideburns, ventral surfaces and inner extremities are
light-orange to orange. In addition, its dorsal surfaces are greyish to
pale-brown agouti (van Roosmalen et al. 2002). The coloration of the forehead
and sideburns is either the same as the head or is contrasting in color. The
skin of the face, ears and genitals is blackish (Hershkovitz 1990). See
van Roosmalen et al. 2002 for more information about variation between
titi species.
There is no sexual dimorphism in titi monkeys. The head and body of
C. donacophilus males averages 311mm (12.2 in) while females average 340mm (13.4
in). In C. moloch, these measurements average 333mm (13.1in) for males and 331mm
(13.0 in) for females. The tail is longer than the head and body combined
(Hershkovitz 1990). Body weight is variable, ranging from around 800 g (1.8 lb)
to around 1200 g (2.6 lb). C. moloch males range in weight from 850-1200 g
(1.9-2.6 lb), averaging 1017 g (2.2 lb) while females range from 700-1020 g
(1.5-2.2 lb), but average 877 g (1.9 lb). C. cupreus males average 1106 g,
ranging from 1000-1175 g (Hershkovitz 1990).
In captivity, C. donacophilus, C. cupreus, and C. moloch have all lived to older
than 25 years and both sexes of differing species have reached that age (Weigl
2005).
Titi monkeys use short leaps to move about the lower levels of the forest,
including the understory
and brush layer although titis will enter the main
canopy (Youlatos 1999; Lawler et al. 2006). Much of the lower levels of the
forest are discontinuous, that is, the animals are not able to move without
leaping small distances. The majority of these leaps are only for small
distances, often less than several body lengths (Lawler et al. 2006). They can
be best described as quadrupedal,
moving through their environment primarily
through walking, clambering, and leaping, supplemented by bounding and climbing
(Youlatos 1999). Titi monkeys are only rarely seen on the ground, but when
traveling on the ground, titis can move relatively quickly, utilizing a bounding
movement which may see them leap as high as a meter off of the ground (Fragaszy
1979; Kinzey 1981). Titis prefer horizontal supports which are less than 5cm
in diameter and their tails never touch what they are walking on (Welker et al.
1998a; Youlatos 1999).
RANGE
CURRENT RANGE MAPS (IUCN REDLIST):Callicebus aureipalatii |
Callicebus baptista |
Callicebus bernhardi |
Callicebus brunneus |
Callicebus caligatus |
Callicebus cinerascens |
Callicebus cupreus |
Callicebus discolor |
Callicebus donacophilus |
Callicebus dubius |
Callicebus hoffmannsi |
Callicebus modestus |
Callicebus moloch |
Callicebus oenanthe |
Callicebus olallae |
Callicebus ornatus |
Callicebus pallescens |
Callicebus stephennashi
Titi monkeys are widely distributed across South America, found in Bolivia,
Brazil, Colombia, Ecuador, Paraguay, and Peru. The species under consideration
here are for the most part found south of the Amazon River and west of the
Brazilian cerrado, or grassland (Hershkovitz 1988; van Roosmalen 2002). In the
west, the range is limited by altitude and the rise of the Andes and the
distribution extends as far south as Paraguay, between the Pilcomayo and
Paraguay Rivers (Hershkovitz 1988).
C. baptista, C. bernhardi, C. cinerascens, C. dubius,
C. hoffmannsi, C. moloch, and
C. stephennashi are only found in Brazil (Hershkovitz 1990; van Roosmalen 2002).
Species native to only Bolivia include C. donacophilus and C. aureipalatii, which
is restricted to the northwest of the country (Hershkovitz 1990; van Roosmalen
2002; Wallace et al. 2006). Both C. olallae and C. modestus are also only found
in Bolivia, but share a restricted distribution, confined only to the upper Rio
Beni drainage basin. C. brunneus is also found in Bolivia, but its range extends
to Brazil and Peru as well. C. oenanthe is only found in northern Peru.
C. caligatus is found in Brazil and Peru and C. cupreus is found in Brazil, Peru,
and Ecuador. C. discolor is found in Colombia, Ecuador, Peru and possibly Brazil,
although its presence has not been confirmed there. C. ornatus is only found in
eastern Colombia and is separated by about 350 km (217.5 mi) from any other
member of the Cupreus group by C. torquatus. C. pallescens is the only species of
titi monkey found in Paraguay, although it is also found in Brazil (Hershkovitz
1990; van Roosmalen 2002).
HABITAT
Callicebus cupreusPhoto: Gustl Anzenberger
The habitat of the titi monkeys described here are somewhat varied, ranging from
evergreen neotropical terra firma
rain forest, to floodplain forest, to inundated
forest, to forest edge, swamp edge and "broken up" forest areas (Janson pers.
comm. cited in Kinzey 1981; Kinzey 1981; Warner 2002). They prefer dense
vegetation, often choosing the thickest available including dense tangles,
thickets, thorny underbrush and areas that are wet or even waterlogged on the
ground as well as areas near streams and lakes (Moynihan 1976; van Roosmalen et
al. 2002; Felton et al. 2006). Titis like
gallery forest, high forest,
liana
forest, and treefall edges as well as secondary growth and patches, often in the
middle of savanna
and near streams (Moynihan 1976; Youlatos 1999). They also
are found in flooded forest and dense, low forest with broadleaved trees and
bushes (Moynihan 1976).
Titis can also be found in highly disturbed habitats (Ferrari et al. 2000).
Among the titis, several species have distinctive habitat preferences not shared
by other species. C. donacophilus is found in gallery forests areas nearby or
associated with open areas such as grasslands and swampy grasslands while
C. cinerascens habitat is associated with cerrado woodlands, an intermediate area
between forest and savannah (Ferrari et al. 2000). Titis will also enter and
utilize stands of imported bamboo. If present, bamboo can be quite important to
the species, probably because titis prefer dense vegetation (Moynihan 1976;
Warner 2002). In Colombia, titis can occur in the
piedmont as high as 500m
(1640.4 ft) altitude while in Peru, C. oenanthe can be found in cloud forests
above 800m (2624.7 ft) (Hernández-Camacho & Cooper 1976; Aquino & Encarnación
1994).
Near the eastern end of the contiguous titi distribution in the Brazilian Amazon
in the Amazon (Tapajos) National Park, rainfall averages 175.4 cm (69.1 in)
annually with a dry season between July and November and the highest rainfall
between February and March (Branch 1983). Further west, in Peru, the dry season
is somewhat earlier, occurring between May and September or early October
(Terborgh 1983; Warner 2002). However, the timing of the dry and wet seasons
can vary considerably from year to year (Terborgh 1983). Average temperatures
at the Cocha Cashu study site in Peru can range from a high of around 30°C
(86°F), usually between August, September and October to typical lows between
14-16°C (57.2-60.8°F) (Terborgh 1983). Rainfall at Cocha Cashu averages around
200 cm (78.7 in) annually, mostly between October and April (Wright 1996).
ECOLOGY
Callicebus ornatusPhoto: John Robinson
Titi monkeys are predominantly
frugivores
who will also eat some invertebrates
and other parts of plants (Wright 1989). Titis will eat over a hundred
different species of fruit and plants (Wright 1985). Other researchers describe
them as strongly
omnivorous
(Izawa & Yoneda 1981). Due to their predominantly
vegetarian diet, a significant portion of their day is spent at rest, from less than 25%
in C. discolor in Ecuador (including periods when they are resting out of view) to 60%
in C. moloch in Peru (Terborgh 1985; Carrillo-Bilbao et al. 2005; Lawrence 2007). Based
on time spent feeding during the dry season in Peru, titis eat 70% fruit, 26% leaves, and less than 1% insects (Kinzey 1978). They
prefer fruits from small trees because they can economically exploit foods
concentrated as such, and they will often eat fruit that is not ripe (Wright
1989). Titis will eat moths, butterfies, cocoons, spiders, and ants, generally
less than 2cm (.8 in) in size and are able to capture flying insects from the
air (Meritt 1980; Crandlemire-Sacco 1988; Wright 1985; 1989). When it comes to
prey however, titis will only rarely seek out prey and prefer to scan their
environment for their quarry in a stationary manner (Crandlemire-Sacco 1988;
Wright 1989). In addition a large proportion of the diet is leaves, especially
young leaves and leaf buds, which supply protein (Terborgh 1985;
Crandlemire-Sacco 1988). A large proportion of the titi's feeding time is spent
in smaller trees often with small crowns less than 10 m in diameter (Wright
1984a; 1985). They will not eat
exudates
(Crandlemire-Sacco 1988). In
addition, there is an increase in feeding time on leaves, including vine and bamboo leaves, during
the dry season (Wright 1989; Lawrence 2007). During lactation, the proportion of insects in
the diet of females increases, probably due to an increased protein need
(Herrera & Heymann 2003).
The titi is diurnal
(Mason 1968). Titis will rise early in the morning after
sunrise and will remain awake and active until around sunset or slightly before
(Kinzey 1978; Wright 1989). However, the length of daily activity varies with
the seasons, with titis rising before dawn in the warmer months when more fruit
is available and sometimes staying in the sleeping site for up to four hours
after sunrise in colder months when fruits are harder to find (Wright 1989).
The day is typically divided up into two main feeding sessions, one in the
morning and one in the afternoon, separated by a period of rest at midday
(Kinzey 1978; Mason pers. comm. cited in Kinzey 1978). The last several hours
of the day are often spent intensely feeding on leaves (Janson pers. comm. cited
in Kinzey 1981). Total daily activity lasts an average of 11.5 hours with
feeding averaging around 2.7 hours per day (Kinzey 1978).
Sleeping sites are typically in vine tangles located on small branches which are
at least about 15 meters (49.2 ft) above the ground. Sites are sometimes reused
from night to night and are always more than 100 meters (328.1 ft) from the edge
of the home range (Kinzey 1981; Wright 1995). During sleeping, group members
are close to one another, within one meter (Mason 1968). In addition, during
rest and sleeping, titis will huddle together and entwine their tails in a
characteristic fashion (tail twinning) (Mason 1968; Robinson 1979a; Kinzey
1997).
Callicebus molochPhoto: Luiz Claudio Marigo
Typical day range can vary between 425 m (1394.4 ft) and 1152 m (3779.5 ft), but
usually averages towards the lower end of that range (Mason 1968; Kinzey 1981;
Wright 1985; 1989; Polanco-Ochoa & Cadena 1993). However, due to weather and
exceptional circumstances, the day range can be significantly shorter or longer,
having been observed as low as 150 m (492.1 ft) and as high as 1450 m (4757.2
ft) (Wright 1985). Home ranges are also variable but generally small, varying
between less than .005 km² (.002 mi²) up to .14 km² (.05 mi²) (Mason 1968;
Kinzey 1978; Terborgh 1983; Polanco-Ochoa & Cadena 1993; Carrillo-Bilbao et al. 2005; Lawrence 2007). However, some
estimates place the home range somewhat higher, between .1 km² (.04 mi²) and .2
km² (.08 mi²) (Izawa & Yoneda 1981). In the dry season, when less fruit is
available to titis, the daily path is reduced by up to two-thirds to conserve
energy (Patricia Wright cited in Terborgh 1985).
Titi monkeys can live in the same habitats as a number of other primates
including marmosets (Callithrix sp.),
tamarins (Saguinus sp.), squirrel monkeys
(Saimiri sp.),
saki monkeys (Pithecia sp.),
capuchins (Cebus sp.), owl monkeys
(Aotus sp.),
howler monkeys (Alouatta sp.),
woolly monkeys (Lagothrix sp.), and
spider monkeys (Ateles sp.) (Wright 1988; Youlatos 1999). Larger
sympatric
species will chase the smaller titis from food sources, including larger fruit
trees (Wright 1996). Titis coexist with other sympatric species
as is the case with C. moloch ranging with S. fuscicollis due to differential
habitat utilization and diet (Crandlemire-Sacco 1988). Nevertheless, if
possible, titi monkeys will avoid all other primates (Wright 1985).
The most important predators of titi monkeys are
raptors. Several different
sizes and species of raptors are capable of and have been observed attacking a
titi, including the Guianan crested eagle (Morphnus guianensis) and the Ornate
hawk-eagle (Spizaetus ornatus) (Terborgh 1983).
Felids may also be a predator
of the titi monkey, but arboreal
mammals make up only a small and unimportant
part of their diet and are only taken in exceptional circumstances (Emmons
1987). Arboreal snakes are also present in some titi habitats and may also be a
predator (Wright 1985; Cisneros-Heredia 2007). Tufted capuchins (Cebus apella) have rarely been observed to
predate titis. Sampaio & Ferrari (2005) observed a tufted capuchin killing and subsequently consuming an infant of C. moloch.
In addition, Lawrence (2007) reported that a large female C. brunneus juvenile died after it had been attacked by tufted capuchins
while feeding in the same tree. Titis avoid predators primarily through
crypsis and hiding (Terborgh 1983).
Content last modified: December 19, 2007
Written by Kurt Gron. Reviewed by Gabriela de Luna.
Cite this page as:
Gron KJ. 2007 December 19. Primate Factsheets: Dusky titi (Callicebus moloch) Taxonomy, Morphology, & Ecology . <http://pin.primate.wisc.edu/factsheets/entry/dusky_titi>. Accessed 2019 December 13.