CONSERVATION STATUS
CITES: Appendix II (http://www.cites.org)
IUCN Red List: En A1acd (http://www.redlist.org)
Wild crested black macaques are endangered (EN A1acd) and face a very high risk of extinction in the near future because the population has been reduced by at least 50%
over the last 10 years (or three generations, depending which is longer)
as evidenced by direct observation, a decrease in the area of occupancy,
extent of occurrence, and/or quality of habitat, and known levels of
exploitation. Though they are seriously imperiled, they are categorized
by CITES only as an Appendix II species and their trade is subject to
international regulation.
The most serious conservation concerns facing crested black macaques on
Sulawesi are habitat destruction and fragmentation and hunting. The
total population is estimated to be between 4000 and 6000 individuals.
On Bacan, where the human population density is lower, timber extraction
is not as widespread, and the people traditionally do not hunt monkeys.
The result is a booming population, with estimates ranging up to 100,000
(Rosenbaum et al. 1998b; Bynum et al. 1999).
CONSERVATION THREATS & POTENTIAL SOLUTIONS
Threat: Human-Induced Habitat Loss and Degradation
On Sulawesi, the highest densities of human populations are concentrated
in the far southwest and northeast corners of the island. In the
northeast, the only part of Sulawesi where crested black macaques can be
found, the dense human population has directly affected forest structure
in lowland areas. Conversion of forest for subsistence and commercial
agriculture, collection of forest products, road systems, and extraction
of timber and minerals have severely degraded and fragmented the forests
on which crested black macaques rely (Bynum et al. 1999). Cloves,
coconut, and coffee plantations for commercial harvest dominate northern
Sulawesi and replace primary
forest with monocultures that
are virtually useless to crested black macaques. Even subsistence
gardens at high enough densities threaten these monkeys; the increasing
human population needs increasing land to grow crops and as individual
gardens are cleared, forests become more fragmented (Bynum et al. 1999).
The collection of forest products in nature reserves includes wood,
rattan (a multi-purpose fiber) and palm leaves. In forests
bordered by areas of high human population density, the collection of
these products can seriously degrade primary forest quality (O'Brien
& Kinnaird 1996; Rosenbaum et al. 1998b). The extensive network of
roads being built in this region to accommodate the growing human
population only serves to exacerbate the problem. As areas of pristine
forest are cleared and roads are cut through tracts of forest, people
have easier access to previously untouched resources. Though the levels
of deforestation are lower than other areas of Indonesia because access
to higher levels is difficult due to the steep volcanic slopes, the
areas where these macaques are found are quickly being destroyed (Bynum
et al. 1999).
Protected areas on Sulawesi include Tangkoko Batuangus-Dua Sudara,
Gunung Ambang, and Gunung Manembonembo Nature Reserves as well as
Bunaken Marine National Park. The largest and densest population of
crested black macaques occurs at Tangkoko and while they are found in
other protected areas, densities are much lower. There are also
a number of protected forests, but these are under heavy resource
pressures and are not thought to contain crested black macaques (Bynum
et al. 1999). Protected areas on Sulawesi can be considered "paper
parks," in which resource use within the parks is prohibited by legislation,
but no structured system of stopping resource extraction exists (Bynum et al. 1999).
There is little doubt that the only viable population of crested black macaques
on Sulawesi exists in Tangkoko because areas outside this reserve, even
in other reserves, are severely compromised (Rosenbaum et al. 1998b).
Potential Solutions
Enforcement of laws prohibiting agriculture and extraction of resources
from protected areas must be implemented immediately if crested black
macaques are to be protected in the most important parts of their range
(Bynum et al. 1999). Human population densities are only going to
increase in the future, and unless effective enforcement of protected
area status is activated, the growing human population will continue to
destroy crested black macaque habitat. Education programs about the
unique nature of crested black macaques for people surrounding reserves
as well as programs allowing only limited extraction of forest products may
decrease pressure on parks (Bynum et al. 1999). A more radical
approach is confiscation of forest products by government officials
and subsequent prosecution of violators. Another approach might include ecotourism, which gives a different economic value to forest products for local people and in some instances, may encourage protection by local people. If people glean profits from having undamaged parks which tourists pay to enjoy, there may be an incentive to reduce resource consumption and increase protection of the habitat (Kinnaird pers. comm.).
Reducing mechanized commercial logging may also have an impact on
sustaining habitat for the crested black macaque. Rather than using
machines to clear-cut areas, which is exceptionally destructive to wide
tracts of land, the business of logging for domestic use could focus on
more sustainable techniques such as selective logging. Convincing
logging companies to do this may be difficult, but because the logs
extracted are sold primarily within Indonesia, not exported,
community-based efforts focusing on the endemism of crested black macaques
could turn consumer attitude toward supporting sustainable logging
(Rosenbaum et al. 1998b). That is, Indonesian buyers of timber have
more stake in the sustainable and responsible harvest of logs than do
foreign buyers who have no connection to the native flora and fauna at risk
from mechanized logging.
Threat: Harvesting (hunting/gathering)
Hunting of crested black macaques is an even more severe threat to their survival than habitat destruction (Lee 1995; Rosenbaum et al. 1998b; Bynum et al. 1999; Kinnaird pers. comm.). Among Christians on Sulawesi, monkey meat is a traditional food and a delicacy for special occasions including Christmas dinner and other celebrations
(Rosenbaum et al. 1998b). Among Indonesian Muslims, monkeys are not
eaten because of religious prohibition, but even in areas where the
human population is predominantly Muslim, hunting is still a problem.
In these areas, conflicts with farmers lead to killing or trapping
crested black macaques and selling them as pets (Rosenbaum et al. 1998b;
Bynum et al. 1999).
Because of the social structure of crested black macaques, the serious
potential to eradicate large numbers in a small period of time is great.
It is easy and inexpensive for hunters to capture several macaques at a
time because they only have to find one group to have access to dozens
of animals. Additionally, because it is a delicacy, monkey meat is in
demand throughout the year and hunters exploit the market demand
year-round (Lee 1995). Indonesian law prohibits hunting in protected
areas, but there is essentially no protection afforded to macaques
because reserve personnel are unable to patrol all areas under their
care. Furthermore, there is evidence that only in the most central part
of Tangkoko are crested black macaques protected from poachers; in all
other areas of the reserve and other reserves in Sulawesi, hunters are
free to track and kill any animals (Bynum et al. 1999).
Potential Solutions
Better enforcement and education programs focused on changing the
traditional and cultural attitudes of Christians in Sulawesi is
necessary to decrease hunting pressure on crested black macaques (Bynum
et al. 1999). In the decade from 1990 to 2000, only one prosecution for
trade of protected macaques occurred. The resulting actions were only
taken because of the publicity engendered by a researcher at Tangkoko
who caught two men with 11 dead macaques and reported them to the local
police. After two months of inaction by the police, the researcher
created publicity in local newspapers and magazines. After four more
months, the men were finally tried and sentenced. They spent six months
in prison (Clayton & Milner-Gulland 2000). Both men that were
prosecuted claimed to be unaware of the prohibitions against hunting
crested black macaques. While it is difficult to surmise if this was
the truth, certainly education programs could ensure that local people
know and understand Indonesian law and the potential punishment for
hunting protected species. Clearly enforcement is an issue, given that
this single case in a decade was only brought before the court because
of the action of one researcher. Even if enforcement was impossible
throughout the year, given that monkey meat is known to be in especially
high demand around Christmas, local officials could spend more time
during this part of the year patrolling for and prosecuting poachers
(Clayton & Milner-Gulland 2000). Another potential solution is to
replace hunting with another income-generating activity for hunters. On
average, a hunter receives only US$1.36 for each macaque sold at
market; replacing this income with another more sustainable source of
money could potentially decrease the incentive to hunt macaques (Clayton
& Milner-Gulland 2000).
Threat: Persecution
Crested black macaques come into contact with humans when the macaques
raid crops adjacent
to areas of forest. They are considered agricultural pests because in large groups, they can strip a garden of all harvestable fruit in one visit and can destroy the potential for future growth. Understandably, tolerance for this crop-raiding behavior is low and local people often set traps and snares on the borders of their gardens to catch offending crested black macaques (Rosenbaum et
al. 1998b; Bynum et al. 1999). As human populations grow and the abundance of subsistence gardens increases, the destruction of primary forest fruit resources will also increase and this problem is likely to worsen and affect even more macaques (Bynum et al. 1999).
Potential Solutions
There are known crops that are not palatable to crested black macaques,
including cloves, rice, and pepper. Strategically planting these crops
at the border of gardens or in areas dense in subsistence agricultural
production could decrease crop damage done by macaques and reduce
persecution (Bynum et al. 1999). Furthermore, if this planting of
deterrent crops is coupled with community education programs, tolerance
of crested black macaques may increase and fewer traps and snares will
be set.
Threat: Natural Disasters
Climate change has played a significant role in the loss of crested
black macaques and could have significant effects in the future as
population size dwindles. Widespread drought following the El
Niño/Southern Oscillation of 1997-98 led to the largest fire
disaster ever observed and resulted in the burning of millions of acres
in this region of Southeast Asia. Though normally not vulnerable to
fires even during drought, tropical forests that are severely logged are
at high risk for destruction by wildfires (Siegert et al. 2001). The
use of fire is widely employed as a tool to clear land for commercial
and subsistence agriculture as well as hunting in some areas of
Indonesia. During periods of severe drought brought on by El
Niño, the logged forests were particularly sensitive to fire
activity and many fires started by local people resulted in
uncontrollable forest fires that burned millions of acres and
undoubtedly killed forest-dwelling animals including crested black
macaques (Anonymous 1997; Siegert et al. 2001).
Potential Solutions
Though there is no solution to drought or its underlying causes, some
important management techniques can be implemented to decrease the
likelihood of another El Niño event decimating the crested black
macaque population. Decreasing logging activity in primary forests is
necessary and would decrease the chance of fire affecting the forests.
Furthermore, education and giving incentives to corporations and local
people to change their land clearing techniques would reduce the
opportunity for fires to get out of control.
Threat: Changes in Native Species Dynamics
Though their ranges do not overlap, the ranges of crested black macaques
and another species, M. nigrescens border each other.
Examinations of monkeys coming from this border region led to some
speculation that there was a low level of hybridization among these species
(Watanabe & Matsumura 1991). No genetic tests were conducted and as
this assertion was based on the physical characteristics of only a few
individuals and it is unlikely that these specimens were hybrids (Groves
2001). Furthermore, discrimination tests conducted on all seven species
of macaques (Macaca) on Sulawesi were conducted in captivity and showed that each
species had a definite, and strong, response to, and visual preference for,
members of its own species, further decreasing the likelihood that
hybridization affects crested black macaques in the wild (Fujita &
Watanabe 1997).
Threat: Intrinsic Factors
There is no published data on the genetic diversity of wild crested
black macaques to evaluate if they are threatened by genetic drift or inbreeding depression. Presumably
because populations outside of Tangkoko are isolated, gene flow is
minimized and there is a potential for inbreeding within groups where
males cannot disperse because of habitat restrictions.
Threat: Human Disturbance
Ecotourism can be a way to integrate the goals of economic development
with wildlife conservation, especially when involving charismatic
species like the crested black macaque. When managed improperly,
though, there can be negative effects on both wildlife and local
communities as tourists disturb natural behaviors and exploit local
people (Kinnaird & O'Brien 1996). In Tangkoko, the presence of
large numbers of tourists has a negative effect on crested black macaque
groups; they consistently run in fear, vocalize, and flee to the trees
in the presence of more than five tourists (Kinnaird & O'Brien
1996).
Potential Solutions
Currently, there are no requirements for exploring Tangkoko, such as
being accompanied by a trained guide, a factor that could seriously
contribute to the stressful responses of crested black macaques to
tourists. If groups of only a few individuals approached crested black
macaques and were walking and talking loudly, the response was to flee
(Kinnaird & O'Brien 1996). Requiring that a trained guide accompany
tourists would decrease the chances of inappropriate behavior by
visitors and decrease the disturbance of the monkeys. This would also
create job opportunities for local people most familiar with the forest,
and could even create an alternate income generating opportunity for
hunters, who are skilled at tracking macaque groups. Carefully
implemented and conscientious ecotourism operations could both increase
revenues for local people and protect the crested black macaques in
Tangkoko. Before this can occur, though, a change in the status of the reserve must be made, as tourism is currently illegal in Tangkoko. With the upgrade of the reserve to a park, the government would be able to increase gate fees, require guides, and initiate training to prepare for structured tours and these activities could increase the local economy and protection for crested black macaques (Kinnaird pers. comm.).
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Content last modified: February 2, 2006
Written by Kristina Cawthon Lang. Reviewed by Margaret Kinnaird.
Cite this page as:
Cawthon Lang KA. 2006 February 2. Primate Factsheets: Crested black macaque (Macaca nigra) Conservation. <http://pin.primate.wisc.edu/factsheets/entry/crested_black_macaque/cons>. Accessed 2008 May 16.
