Conservation status:
Vulnerable
Life span: 33 years (captive)
Total population: Unknown
Regions: Brazil, French Guiana, Guyana, Surinam, Venezuela (not confirmed)
Gestation: 7.5 months (226-232 days)
Height: 557 mm (M), 552 mm (F)
Weight: 10.8 kg (M), 9.66 kg (F)
TAXONOMY
Suborder: Haplorrhini
Infraorder: Simiiformes
Family: Atelidae
Subfamily: Atelinae
Genus: Ateles
Species: A. paniscus
Other names: red-faced spider monkey or red-faced black spider
monkey; kwatta (Dutch); atèle noir (French); macaco aranha, mono arena,
or mono araña negro (Spanish); rödansiktad spindelapa (Swedish)
Including black spider monkeys, there are currently seven species of spider
monkeys recognized: A. belzebuth, A. chamek, A. hybridus,
A. marginatus, A. fusciceps, and A. geoffroyi (Groves 2001).
All are found in Central or South America, and at one time, they were all
classified as subspecies of A. paniscus (van Roosmalen & Klein 1988).
Some taxonomists recognize only four species of spider monkeys, including
A. geoffroyi, A. hybridus, A. belzebuth, and
A. paniscus, leaving A. fusciceps as a subspecies of
A. geoffroyi and A. marginatus and A. chamek
as subspecies of A. belzebuth (Collins & Dubach 2000).
Recent genetic studies have distinguished black spider monkeys from the other
species of spider monkeys based on the number of chromosomes and reproductive
isolation from geographically nearby species (de Boer & de Bruijn 1990;
Collins & Dubach 2000; Groves 2001).
MORPHOLOGY
Black spider monkeys have long, glossy black hair covering their entire bodies
except for their faces. Their long hair immediately distinguishes them from
other species of spider monkeys, but there are other defining characteristics
(Newland 1994). Adults have red or pink-skinned faces which are bare except
for a very few short white hairs on their muzzles (Konstant et al. 1985;
Groves 2001). Infants do not have pinkish faces like adults but rather dark
skin on their faces which lightens as they age (Rowe 1996). Spider monkeys are
among the largest of the
New World monkeys
and are long-limbed and somewhat gangly in their appearance especially in
contrast to their characteristic pot bellies; the spidery appearance of their
long arms, legs, and tails is indicated by the common name (Groves 1989;
Sussman 2000).
Photo: Luiz Claudio Marigo
Of all the species of spider monkeys, black spider monkeys are the largest
(van Roosmalen & Klein 1988). In general, spider monkeys are not characterized
by a high degree of sexual dimorphism;
the average weight for wild black spider monkey males is 10.8 kg (23.8 lb) while
females weigh 9.66 kg (21.3 lb) on average (Youlatos 1994; Di Fiore & Campbell
2007). The height of male spider monkey averages 557 mm (1.83 ft) while females
average 552 mm (1.81 ft) (Youlatos 1994).
The body structure and several other
morphological
characteristics of black spider monkeys are adaptations to their completely
arboreal
lifestyle. First, their elongated arms allow them to move in a specialized
manner through the trees using a hand-over-hand motion. This type of locomotion, called
brachiation,
is also seen in the lesser apes
(Schmitt et al. 2005). In addition to their elongated arms, black spider
monkeys have especially hook-like hands with elongated fingers which allow them
to swing over branches with ease. Unlike most other primates, spider monkeys
lack an external thumb, but this is not because they are less evolved than other
primates (Erikson 1963; Fleagle 1988). The abbreviated thumb is really a
specialized adaptation; their ancestor had an opposable thumb,
but over time, it has shrunk in size relative to other bones of the hand due to
lack of use in their arboreal environment (Groves 1989; Tague 1997). Another morphological
adaptation seen in black spider monkeys is the presence of a long, specialized tail.
An adaptive trait seen only in some New World monkeys is the presence of a
prehensile tail,
which allows arboreal animals to move through the canopy with additional ease,
security, and efficiency. Black spider monkeys have a 'third hand' to grasp
branches while moving through the canopy, preventing side-to-side swinging
motion that could lead to inefficiency and increased effort in locomotion
(Schmitt et al. 2005). On the underside of the very tip of the tail there is a
patch of skin with distinct pattern of lines like a fingerprint. This patch of
skin, or friction pad, at the tip is functionally important because it helps the
tail grip onto surfaces, much like fingers on a hand (Groves 1989; Newland 1994;
Lemelin 1995). Additionally, the presence of a prehensile tail is important in
suspensory
feeding: the tail supports the entire weight of the monkey while both hands are free to
forage
(Mittermeier 1978). The prehensile tail seen in black spider monkeys is
relatively longer than the nonprehensile tail
of other primates and has more vertebrae which are smaller relative to overall
tail length than non-specialized tails seen in other primates. This anatomical
feature is significant because the presence of additional, but smaller vertebrae
allows for increased flexibility and extension in the prehensile tail compared
to nonprehensile tails (Schmitt et al. 2005). In addition to brachiation, black spider
monkeys move through the environment through
quadrupedal
walking and running and through clambering movement which utilizes numerous
supports in no particular order or pattern (Mittermeier 1978; Youlatos 2002).
The maximum recorded longevity for black spider monkeys is 33 years, but without
long-term field research, it is difficult to draw conclusions from one
measurement (Ross 1991).
RANGE
CURRENT RANGE MAPS (IUCN REDLIST):Ateles paniscus
Black spider monkeys are found in eastern South America in Brazil, French Guiana,
Guyana, Surinam, and possibly in Venezuela (Konstant et al. 1985; Rylands et
al. 1995). In Brazil, they are isolated to Para State, in the northeastern part
of the country, north of the Amazon River and east of the Rio Branco. Their range
extends north into French Guiana, Surinam, and eastern Guyana but they are
restricted to the forests east of the Guianan Highlands in these countries
(Collins & Dubach 2000; Groves 2001). If they are present in Venezuela, it
is at the very eastern tip of the country. While their presence has not been
confirmed, it is possible because there are neither habitat nor geographic
barriers precluding black spider monkeys from living in forests on the
Venezuelan-Guyanan border (Konstant et al. 1985).
One of the first long-term field studies of black spider monkeys was conducted
by Marc van Roosmalen at Raleighvallen-Voltzberg Nature Reserve in central
Surinam, and research has continued in the reserve since this pioneering study.
Wild black spider monkeys have been studied in French Guiana by Dionisios
Youlatos and in Guyana by Shawn Lehman. Most of the ecological and social data
in published literature comes from studies conducted in Surinam black spider
monkeys.
HABITAT
Black spider monkeys are found in moist tropical evergreen forests and prefer undisturbed
primary rainforests
(Kinzey 1997). Throughout their range, black spider monkeys are found in high
densities in high rainforest- areas which are not affected by seasonal flooding
of rivers- and in high mountain savanna forest, as well as occasionally in swamp
or marsh forests along creeks, and occasionally in high mountain savanna forest
(van Roosmalen & Klein 1988; Kinzey & Norconk 1990; Trolle 2003). These
high mountain savanna forests are found on the interior of Surinam and are
present because of large, granite rock formations which limit the growth of
emergent rainforest trees but which allow for smaller, savanna-like species
to grow (Mittermeier & van Roosmalen 1981).
In Guyana, the tropical climate translates into high average daily temperatures,
large amounts of annual rainfall, and distinct wet and dry seasons. The average
daily temperature is 25.7°C (78.3°F), but the warmest months of the
year are September and October while the coldest months are December and January
(Lehman 2000). The mean annual rainfall is between 2000 and 3400 mm (6.56 and
11.2 ft) and is distributed across two wet seasons. The summer rainy season
lasts from May to August and another wet season spans November to January.
There are two dry seasons as well, the longer lasting from mid-August to
November or December and the shorter lasting from February to April
(Lehman 2000). Black spider monkeys in Guyana are found primarily in
lowland
evergreen rainforests in the interior forest region of the country and are not
found in swamp forests or woodlands (Lehman 2004a; 2004b). In neighboring
Surinam, black spider monkeys are almost entirely restricted to the interior
forests of the country, which begin about 60 miles from the coast. The climate
of Surinam's tropical forests is comparable to those of Guyana. The mean annual
temperature is 26.1°C (78.9°F) and the monthly average temperature
only varies by about two degrees during the year. The warmest months are
September and October while the coolest months are January and February (van
Roosmalen 1985). The annual rainfall in Surinam is between 2000 and 2400 mm
(6.569 and 7.87 ft) and is concentrated during certain times of the year. The
long rainy season lasts from mid-April to mid-July, with peak rainfall occurring
in May and is followed by a long dry season lasting from August until
mid-November. From December to April, the rainfall varies greatly, but there is
usually a short rainy season followed by a short dry season within this time
period (van Roosmalen 1985).
Where black spider monkeys occur in French Guiana, the average annual temperature
is 26.1°C (78.9°F) and annual rainfall varies from 3000 to 3250 mm
(9.84 to 10.7 ft) (Youlatos 2002). Similar to other range countries, French
Guiana experiences seasonal variation in rainfall with the dry season lasting
from mid-August to mid-November and a long rainy season for the rest of the
year. The rainy season is punctuated by a short dry season lasting briefly
during February and March (Zhang 1995).
In one field study conducted north of Manaus, Brazil, black spider monkeys were
found in terra firma
rainforests with seasonal precipitation. In the Adolfo
Ducke Forest Reserve, annual precipitation ranges between 2170 and 2900 mm
(7.11 and 9.51 ft). Rainfall is concentrated during the wet season which lasts
from December to May and which is followed by a dry season lasting from June to
October or November (Rylands & Keuroghlian 1988).
ECOLOGY
Photo: Sean Flannery
Black spider monkeys are habitat specialists and are almost always seen in undisturbed,
primary
rainforest and do not utilize
edge habitats
(Mittermeier & van Roosmalen 1981; Lehman 2004b). Like other species of
spider monkeys, black spider monkeys occupy the upper layers of the rainforest and
forage
in the high canopy (from 25 to 30 m [82.0 to 98.4 ft]) consuming primarily
fruits, but also occasionally consuming leaves, flowers, and insects (van
Roosmalen & Klein 1988; Russo et al. 2005). As large-bodied
frugivores,
black spider monkeys are important seed dispersers within the rainforest ecosystem
and play a crucial role in regenerating tropical forests (van Roosmalen 1985;
Russo et al. 2005). Compared to other
sympatric
species of primates, black spider monkeys exhibit low diet diversity because of
their high levels of fruit consumption (Guillotin et al. 1994). Despite their
dependence on fruit as the mainstay of their diet, black spider monkeys supplement
their fruit consumption during periods of scarcity with other food items
including flowers, leaves, roots, bulbs, bark and decaying wood, and honey
(van Roosmalen 1985). The amount of fruit and supplemental foods such as
flowers and leaves vary seasonally, as fruit production is linked to rainfall.
During the long dry season, for example, fewer fruits are available, therefore
fewer fruits are consumed and black spider monkeys rely more heavily on other
food sources (Mittermeier & van Roosmalen 1981; van Roosmalen 1985). Fruit
supply is lowest from the end of the rainy season to the beginning of the dry
season, from approximately June through September, and black spider monkeys
exploit all available food resources, but still consume mainly fruit during
this time (Guillotin et al. 1994; Simmen & Sabatier 1996). In contrast,
during the months of February through June, ripe fruit is plentiful and black
spider monkeys rely on this preferred resource over other food items, with more
than 85% of their diet made up of ripe fruits (van Roosmalen 1985; Guillotin et
al. 1994; Simmen & Sabatier 1996).
Because of their large body size, which has high caloric needs, and dependence
on fruit, a geographically scattered resource found in small, widely dispersed
patches, black spider monkeys require large home range sizes as well as long
daily travel lengths (Collins & Dubach 2000). One study in Surinam estimated
the home range size of one group to be 2.55 km² (.985 mi²),
but this area was restricted by geographical boundaries that black spider monkeys
are not likely to cross into such as granite formations and
lowland
forests (van Roosmalen 1985). Home range sizes in habitats where there are fewer restrictions
might be larger. From the same study, the day range length was widely estimated
between .5 and 5 km (.311 and 3.11 mi), depending on a number of factors such as
season, weather, and group composition (van Roosmalen 1985). In French Guiana,
home range size varies between 1.50 and 4.00 km² (.579 and 1.54 mi²)
and daily distance traveled is between .5 and 5 km (.311 and 3.11 mi)
(Simmen & Sabatier 1996). Their specialized prehensile tails may contribute
to increased efficiency in travel, allowing them to cover larger distances using
less energy. It also contributes to increased feeding efficiency after they have
found a patch of fruit and are foraging (Youlatos 2002). The most common methods
of locomotion seen in black spider monkeys are quadrupedal walking or running and
suspensory locomotion, including brachiation (Mittermeier 1978). When they are
feeding, black spider monkeys employ suspensory behavior using their specialized
prehensile tails to access as much fruit as possible from one location. Black
spider monkeys spend most of their time feeding in either a seated or hanging
position, taking advantage of their tails to free both hands for collecting
fruit and to help them reach fruit that is available both at the same vertical
strata and on branches below them (Mittermeier 1978; Youlatos 2002).
The population density estimate for black spider monkeys in Suriname is 7.1
individuals per square kilometer (4.41 individuals per mi²); this
is compared to a density of 8.57 individuals per square kilometer (5.33
individuals per mi²) in another study site in French Guiana
(van Roosmalen 1985; Kessler 1998). Groups of spider monkeys protect a
territory or core area, but in other species of spider monkeys, there is some
amount of range overlap between groups (van Roosmalen & Klein 1988).
Compared to other New World primates, spider monkeys are large-bodied and are
less susceptible to predation, but there are a number of potential predators
within their range (Di Fiore 2002). Some potential predators include multiple
species of raptors,
felids
such as jaguars and pumas, as well as large snakes (Di Fiore 2002). Generally
speaking, the observation of predation events is rare and most evidence of
predation is circumstantial. In one instance, though, a crested eagle
(Morphnus guianensis) was seen capturing and killing a juvenile black
spider monkey in French Guiana (Julliot 1994). While these events are unlikely
to be witnessed, the presence of large predators combined with observational
evidence leads to the conclusion that predators can threaten black spider
monkeys (Di Fiore 2002).
Content last modified: April 10, 2007
Written by Kristina Cawthon Lang. Reviewed by Dionisios Youlatos.
Cite this page as:
Cawthon Lang KA. 2007 April 10. Primate Factsheets: Black spider monkey (Ateles paniscus) Taxonomy, Morphology, & Ecology . <http://pin.primate.wisc.edu/factsheets/entry/black_spider_monkey>. Accessed 2019 December 13.