Gorilla Ethograms
Collection of Gorilla Ethograms
Compiled by:
The Gorilla Behavior Advisory Group
[affiliated with the Gorilla SSP]
Jackie Ogden, Zoo Atlanta and Georgia Institute of Technology
Deborah Schildkraut, Ph.D., Boston MetroParks Zoos
Co-chairs
Anne Baker, Ph.D., Brookfield Zoo
Benjamin B. Beck, Ph.D., National Zoo
Cynthia Bennett, Ph.D., Dallas Zoo
Thaya duBois, Los Angeles Zoo
Cathleen Cox, Ph.D., Los Angeles Zoo
Ken Gold, Zoo Atlanta and Georgia Institute of Technology
Donna Fernandes, Ph.D., MetroParks Zoos, Boston
Carol Glick, Arizona State University
Ingrid Porton, St. Louis Zoo
Jill Mellen, Ph.D., Washington Park Zoo, Consultant
The Gorilla Behavior Advisory Group (GBAG) would like to gratefully
acknowledge all those researchers who gave permission to include their
ethograms in this compilation, as well as those who had previously
published their ethograms. Additionally, GBAG would like to thank the
Gorilla SSP Group for their sanction. Each ethogram is listed under the
name of the respective author(s), with either the author's affiliation or
the reference from which it was taken. The majority of these ethograms
were, of course, built upon previous work of other researchers. Any
typographical errors or errors of interpretation are of course the
responsibility of the compilers, not the respective authors. This work
represents a compilation, not a recommendation of any particular
ethogram. Although an attempt was made, this compilation is by no means
exhaustive. Copies of this compilation are available for $5.00 from
Jackie Ogden, Zoo Atlanta, 800 Cherokee Avenue SE, Atlanta, GA 30315.
[Checks should be made payable to the Atlanta/Fulton County Zoo.] You may
also obtain a copy of this document in electronic form in either
WordPerfect 4.2 or in ASCII text-files [please indicate which version you
can use]. Send one formatted 5 1/4 inch diskette to Donna Hardy, Dept. of
Psychology, Calif. State Univ. Northridge, Northridge, CA 91330. [Since
this is a service of the Consortium of Aquariums, Universities and Zoos,
no charge is made for the ethograms in electronic form.]
updated January, 1991
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Beck, B. Phase 1...............................................page 3
Beck, B. Phase 2...............................................page 5
Bennett, C. and Fried, J. (1990)...............................page 7
Bowen, R.A. (1980).............................................page 25
Brown, S.G. (1988).............................................page 26
duBois, T., Mead, J. & Cox, C..................................page 27
Elliott, R.C. (1976)...........................................page 37
Fischer, R.B. (1984)...........................................page 38
Fossey, D. (1972)..............................................page 39
Fossey, D. (1979)..............................................page 41
Fossey, D. (1982)..............................................page 45
Frisch, D. J...................................................page 46
Goerke, B., Fleming, L., & Creel, M. (1987)....................page 48
Gold, K. (a)...................................................page 50
Gold, K. (b)...................................................page 52
Gould, J. E....................................................page 54
Harcourt, A. H. (1979a)........................................page 67
Harcourt, A. H. (1979b)........................................page 68
Harcourt, A. H. & Stewart, K. J. (1981)........................page 69
Hoff, M. P., Nadler, R. D., & Maple, T. L. (1981a).............page 70
Hoff, M. P., Nadler, R. D., & Maple, T. L. (1981b).............page 72
Lockard, J. S..................................................page 73
Mannchen, K. (1980)...........................................page 79
Maple, T.L. & Hoff, M..........................................page 81
Meder, A. (1985)...............................................page 86
Meder, A. (1986)...............................................page 87
Meder, A. (1990)...............................................page 88
Mitchell, R.W. (1989)..........................................page 89
Nadler, R.D., Collins, D.C., Miller, C., & Graham, C.E. (1983).page 90
Nadler, R.D. (1985)............................................page 91
Ogden, J.J., Hoff, M., & Maple, T.L............................page 92
Quiatt, D., Miller, L., & Cambre, R. (1986)....................page 96
Riess, B.F., Ross, S., Lyerly, S.B., & Birch, H.G. (1949)......page 97
Schaller, G. (1963)............................................page 99
Schildkraut, D. & Akers, J.....................................page 100
Schildkraut, D. (a)............................................page 102
Schildkraut, D. (b)............................................page 103
Schildkraut, D. (c)............................................page 105
Schildkraut, D. (d)............................................page 106
Schildkraut, D. (e)............................................page 107
Smalley, S.L. (1979)...........................................page 108
Watts, D.P. (1988).............................................page 109
Watts, D.P. (1990).............................................page 110
Woods, S.......................................................page 111
Wood, G., Forthman, D.L., & Ogden, J.J.........................page 113
Yamagiwa, J. (1986)............................................page 115
Index..........................................................page 116
Appendix.......................................................page 117
Beck, B. Phase 1: National Zoo, Gorilla Research Project
(study at the Brookfield Zoo)
Purpose: To compile data on the social behavior and social structure of
gorilla groupings to better inform management decisions and to plan
strategies for reproduction.
Sampling methods: Scans of location and activity (5 minute intervals).
Other behaviors, all occurrences.
Ethogram key words: Activity budgets/General behaviors, Social behavior.
Behaviors:
Activity:
Lie: Being recumbent with little or no weight being borne on hands or
feet.
Sit: Bearing most weight on buttocks.
Stand still: Bearing weight on feet quadrupedally or bipedally with
hands holding on to mesh, glass, tree, etc.
Locomote: Walking, running, or climbing.
?: If activity can't be scored.
Other behaviors:
Rest Near: Sitting or lying within arm's reach of another for at
least 10 seconds. Initiator is second animal to rest. The receiver
must be relatively immobile but need not be resting.
Groom: Directed touching, licking, or intense visual inspection of
another's (GO) or own skin (GS) or pelage. Scratching excluded.
Intimidation display: Resting on chest or abdomen, beating on cage
surface, rapid exaggerated running or strutting, pursed lips, and/or
exaggerated throwing or shoving of objects. Score when any two or
more of these behaviors occur simultaneously or sequentially. Score
initiator only.
Rough-up: Slapping, poking, elbowing, punching, hair pulling,
pushing, shoving, or wrestling when not in play or sexual context.
Aggressive bite: Biting when not in play.
Crouch: Initiator lowers ventrum toward or to substrate, or curls
fetally on substrate. Event terminated when normal locomotor or
resting posture resumed.
Inspect genitalia: Sniffing, touching, or intense visual inspection
of another's genitalia or own genitalia.
Sex solicit: Female purses lips and stares at/follows/reaches toward
male. Event terminated when lips relax for at least 10 seconds.
Copulation: Dorso-ventral mounting or ventro-ventral mounting with
pelvic thrusting. Event terminated when either animal breaks bodily
contact. Note if intromission confirmed (very difficult) or if semen
observed afterward on penis or vagina.
Masturbate: Rhythmic rubbing of genitalia with any part of own body
(e.g., fingers, toe), or against inanimate object.
Yawn: Per usual definition. Score each yawn.
Feces: Manipulation or mouthing of own or another's feces. Note
whose feces if possible. Note "eat" if fecal material actually
ingested.
Regurgitate: Vomiting into mouth, hand, or onto substrate; note if
reswallowed.
Termination of behavior: Termination of yawn, crouch, sex solicit and
copulation is specified in definition of those patterns. For all
other patterns, an event is terminated when discontinued for 10 or
more seconds or if the participating animal(s) engage in another
scored pattern within 10 seconds. However, Rest Near is not rescored
until one partner moves out of arm's reach for 10 seconds regardless
of concomitant behavior.
Beck, B. Phase 2: National Zoo, Gorilla Research Project
(study at the Brookfield Zoo)
Purpose: To study social development of captive-born lowland gorilla
infants being mother-raised in a group.
Sampling methods: 1-0 sampling at 60 seconds intervals. Note occurrence
of rough-up, aggressive bite, or crouch by putting initiator-receiver
letter codes.
Ethogram key words: Development.
Behaviors:
Infant location relative to other animals:
Contact: In physical contact with mother, whether carried or simply
touching.
Other contact: Any physical contact between infant and nonmother.
Proximate: Within arm's reach of other animal, but only when not in
contact with mother.
Distant: Beyond arm's reach but less than 15 feet of other animal,
but only when not in contact with mother.
Independence:
Nursing: Infant's mouth on mother's nipple, with or without actual
suckling.
Eating: Infant puts any solid food (including hay) into its own
mouth, with or without actual chewing or swallowing.
Wean: Mother actively terminates or prevents nursing.
Struggle: Infant trying to break contact withmother while being
restrained by her.
Play :Low intensity slapping, wrestling, or mouthing when initiator
has slack lips or "smile."
Aggressive behavior:
Rough-up: Slapping, poking, elbowing, punching, hair pulling,
holding, or wrestling, when not in play.
Aggressive bite: Biting, when not in play.
Crouch: Initiator lowers ventrum toward or to substrate, or curls
fetally on substrate.
Copulation: Dorso-ventral mounting or ventro-ventral mounting with
pelvic thrusting. Event terminated when either animal breaks bodily
contact. Note if intromission confirmed (very difficult) or if semen
observed afterward on penis or vagina.
Masturbate: Rhythmic rubbing of genitalia with any part of own body
(e.g., fingers, toe), or against inanimate object.
Bennett, C. and Fried, J. (1990) Dallas Zoo. Gorilla Ethology Study.
Purpose: To investigate the effects of exhibit modifications on gorilla
activity budgets.
Sampling: 15 minute focal sampling, with scan sampling at 15 minute
intervals of all individuals.
Ethogram key words: Activity budgets/General behaviors, Social behavior,
Sexual behavior, Post-occupancy evaluation, Display/Agonistic behavior,
Abnormal/Stereotypic behavior.
Behaviors:
Locomotion:
Walk: Individual travels from one location to another by using two,
three, or four limbs to propel the body. Two or three limbs are
always on the ground at one time.
Walk quadrupedal :The animal uses all four limbs to travel forwards,
backwards, or to the side. Leg movement is transverse (i.e., left
forefoot and right hindfoot moving together, then right forefoot and
left hindfoot moving together). Gorillas primarily knucklewalk, but
occasionally walk on the sides of closed fists.
Walk bidpedal: In this form of locomotion, the torso is perpendicular
to the ground. Travel is executed by using hind limbs alone. Legs
are extended and support the body. Forward motion of the legs comes
more from a forward and backward rocking of the pelvis rather than
rotational movements in the hip joints. Arms are usually held close
to the side or are wrapped around the torso. Sometimes, individuals
walk bipedally for short distances while holding onto a structure
(i.e., cage bars, bench, door frame edge, ropes, trees, vines) or
while carrying object(s).
Run: Three gaits can be observed: transverse quadrupedal, lateral
quadrupedal (gallop) and bipedal. Regardless of the gait; none, only
one, or two limbs will be on the ground at a time. Bipedal run is
achieved by slightly elevating the torso and lifting the arms during
a transverse run. This usually occurs within aggressive display
sequences or bouts of play behavior.
Slide: Occurs at end of a run. The animal remains quadrupedal but
stops the running motion while keeping the limbs rigid. The body
might be turned at an angle to the direction of travel. A slide may
be terminated by the presence of cage bars, wall, limbs, etc.
Arm over arm swing: An animal grasps an overhead structure with its
hands. The arms are nearly fully or fully extended. The animal
releases one hand and pivots the body forward from the still grasping
hand while extending the other hand to grasp a structure. It then
pivots the body forward. Swinging movements are slow and deliberate.
Reminiscent of brachiation.
Skip: Not observed in Dallas animals.
Swing: Not observed in Dallas animals.
Circle: Not observed in Dallas animals.
Scoot: Two forms of scoot have been observed, and both occur with the
animal in the squat position. One is a wobble like movement, where
the animal leans from side to side while swinging the elevated side
of the body forward. This can be done with the arms crossed on the
chest or resting on the knees, but the arms could be used to pull the
animal along while it moves next to the cage bars or ropes. The
second form is characterized by use of the arms in a crutch like
manner. The arms are placed on the ground in front of the body.
With the arms rigid and braced on the ground by tightly closed
fists, the body is pivoted forward by swinging between the arms.
Both modes of scoot are primarily used for short distance travel, but
individuals have been observed to travel up to twelve feet in this
manner.
Climb: Gorillas are methodical climbers moving carefully and always
having two limbs in contact with a structure at any one time. The
type of structure being climbed appears to influence the specific
climbing movements used. When climbing cage bars, wood ties, or
trees, movement of the limbs is basically transverse quadrupedal
(transverse limbs may move together or in series). When climbing up
ropes or horizontal bars, an animal may grasp them with its forelimbs
and partially swing its body up off of the ground until the hindlimbs
can also grasp or lean on the structure, thereby assisting the
forelimbs in pulling the body up.
Inactive:
Sit: Basically, sitting consists of: torso erect, not in contact
with ground, resting platform, substrate, etc.; buttock on ground,
legs in front or to the side of the body. Several variations of
sitting postures are regularly displayed:
Legs: bent acutely at the knees, rotated outwards from body
(outer thighs are close to the ground), and crossed at the ankles or
shins (aka: Indian style). The legs can also be extended forward and
crossed at ankles, bent with knee(s) up and foot/feet flat on ground,
legs extended and near parallel, or extended and split apart up to a
90 degree angle.
Arms/hands: crossed on chest, crossed or lying in lap, gripping
feet, resting on knee(s), or extended with knuckles resting on ground
for additional support. Animals will frequently hold on to structure
(i.e., ropes, cage bars, cross-ties) or rest limbs on it.
Torso: upright almost perpendicular to the floor, angled acutely
forward over legs at about a 45 degree angle or less to the floor, or
leaning to the side supported by structure, object, or extended arm.
Record as torso upright, torso hunched over, or back, side or arms
supported.
Squat: In this posture, legs are acutely bent at the knees and
thighs, with the feet under the body and heels tucked into the
buttocks. Feet and legs bear the bulk of the weight and can be in
front of the body or to the side. Buttock does not contact surface.
A squat position is assumed when the animals defecate or urinate (see
Elimination category). There are several variations of the squat
position:
Legs - Knees are bent and can be tucked up in front of the
chest or angled outwards until they form an almost straight line with
the body.
Arms - Forearms or elbows are frequently resting on knees,
thighs or holding onto a structure (i.e., cagebars), but may also be
crossed on chest or extended to the ground for additional support.
Torso - Squatting animals will frequently have their backs
upright against a structure (i.e., cage bars, walls, concrete posts).
When supported by arms extended out, the torso may be bent at a 10
to 15 degree angle.
Perch: Animals assume a squat posture when they are off of the
ground. The feet are used for grasping surfaces.
Legs/feet - Grasp structure with feet side by side or one in
front of the other.
Arms/hands - Grasp same structure/object or nearby
structure/object with hand(s) for additional support.
Lie: In this posture, the body is in a recumbent, prostrate
position. The body can be dorsally, ventrally, or laterally
recumbent. Variations within these positions include:
Ventral: Primarily the ventrum is on the resting surface.
Variations of ventrum include:
Arm(s) - May rest chin on forearm or hand.
Legs - May be bent at knees and tucked the body or hips may
be rotated so both legs lay out to the side.
Dorsal: Primarily the back is on the resting surface.
Variations of dorsal include:
Arms/hands - Are frequently folded across the chest or are
elevated with the elbows extended out and hands resting on
the head. Occasionally, the arms are extended outwards and
are grasping a structure.
Legs/feet - May be crossed at ankles or knees, sometimes an
ankle may rest on opposite knee. The feet may be gripping
an object or could be propped up against a structure.
Sometimes, legs may just stick up in the air at a 90
degree angle to the plane of body. Foot-foot and
hand-foot grasping occurs frequently.
Lateral: Primarily the left or right side of the torso is on
resting surface. Variations include:
Arms/hands - May be folded on chest, lying along length of
body or one/both arm(s) may be bent up under head as a
"pillow."
Legs/feet - Are usually bent at knees, pulled up towards
the body, and laid one on top of the other. The legs also
can be crossed at knees or ankles. Foot-foot and hand-foot
grasping occurs frequently.
Torso - The back may be against an object or unsupported.
Stand: Outstretched or extended arms and/or legs are in contact with
a surface and bear body weight. Stand, like sit and lie, can take
several forms.
Stand quadrupedally: All four limbs are extended, are in contact
with a surface, and support the body weight. The torso is
generally parallel to the ground. Animals will stand on
knuckles or on closed fists; on flat feet with thumbs extended
or on the side of the feet. Variations on the basic quadrupedal
stance can be identified as threat behavior (see descriptions on
agonistic behavior).
Stand bipedally: The torso is in an upright or nearly upright
position (perpendicular to the ground). The legs support the
body, are widely spaced, and bowed or slightly bent. The feet
are turned out, and thumbs extended out from foot. There is no
other support.
Stand supported: The animal is in a bipedal or monopedal
position with the torso perpendicular or even parallel to the
ground. The weight is supported by the legs, hands, or arms,
which may be grasping or resting on some structure.
Environmental exploration:
Survey:
Visual: Animal stops an ongoing behavior or is engaged in no
other behavior and orients head and eyes toward a specific
direction or component of the environment. This orientation can
be prolonged (greater than 2 sec).
Visual side glance: The animal repeatedly shifts its eyes to the
side and focuses momentarily on components of the environment.
The head is stationary and may be oriented away from the
object(s) of scrutiny.
Inspect: Includes both tactile and olfactory components. The
animal reaches out and touches an object with its knuckle(s) or
forefingers. The digit(s) are then brought to the nose and
apparently sniffed.
Olfactory: An animal brings the nose close to an object or the
object near the nose and sniffs.
Gustatory: An animal licks an object, places it momentarily in
the mouth or between the lips, or touches something then places
fingers in the mouth.
Object manipulation:
Object-gather: An animal accumulates objects that are dispersed
and brings them to a central location.
Object-dissemble: Involves a wide variety of actions where the
hands, feet, and mouth, are used to rip, shred, twist apart,
remove components, or peel an object (normally inanimate, but
not necessarily).
Object hold: An animal is inactive/idle with an object resting
in the hand, foot, mouth, or pressed against the body. No other
manipulation is occurring.
Object carry: An animal uses its hands, mouth, legs, and/or feet
to transport an object. Objects may also be carried by tucking
them between the thigh and belly.
Object rigid manipulation: An animal uses an object to rattle,
shake, bang, or pound.
Object use: Involves utilizing objects which are not permanent
fixtures for a number of different purposes: use of an object as
an extension of the body in order to attain an immediate goal
(tool), to increase comfort (furniture, nest), as covering, as a
weapon, etc.
Object varied or non-specific manipulation: This is a catch all
category that includes touching, pushing, absently rocking,
bending, lip rolling, etc.
Auto involved: Manipulate, eliminate, play, ingest:
Manipulate:
Autogroom: Animal uses fingers and/or lips and teeth to manipulate
and remove items from its fur.
Autopick: Animal uses fingers and/or lips to pick debris from its
teeth, nails, nose, ears, and eyes.
Probe anus: animal uses fingers to poke at or rub its anal region.
Masturbate: Self-stimulation of genitalia.
Manual: Animal manipulates its genitals with its hands or feet.
Pelvic rub: Female backs up to an object and rubs anogenital area
against it.
Haunch bounce: From a squatting position animal bounces up and down
on haunches. Males may create a false vagina with hands and haunch
bounce while directing the penis into the hands.
Autoinspect: Animal makes a close visual or olfactory examination of
own body parts.
Comfort: Comfort movements consist of brief, transitory movements
such as changes in posture; e.g., rolling over and changing
orientation of limbs and attempts to ease or relieve an uncomfortable
situation; e.g., stretching, scratching, yawning, coughing, clearing
the throat, etc.
Eliminate:
Urinate: Expel urine. Animals assume a squat position with
torso tipped forward and weight on its arms which are extended
in front of the body.
Defecate: Expel feces. Position during defecation is similar to
that described for urinate. Animals may urinate and defecate at
the same time.
Regurgitate: To eject part or all of the stomach contents through the
mouth, usually in a series of involuntary spasms. However, gorillas
seem to have a high degree of control over regurgitation. Record
this only if the animal regurgitates but does not reingest vomitus.
Play: Lone play includes repetitive, exaggerated, disjointed, and
seemingly nonpurposeful behavior. When alone, such behavior usually
involves an inanimate object or consists of repetitive movements
accompanied by a play face.
Object: Shake, bounce, hit, juggle item, hug, rub, swing, toss in
air. Movement is exaggerated. Water can be considered to be an
object.
Peregration or locomotor play: Clap, rock, somersault, shake, twist,
run, slap, pat, circle, lip flap.
Body oriented: Manipulate body part, exaggerated head and/or body
rubbing, pulling of extremities, etc. - chest beat.
Ingest: Includes a wide array of behavior associated with the
location, procurement, processing, and consumption of items.
Forage: Manipulation of substrate or objects in the environment
which results in obtaining food items (substrate is frequently
edible itself). This includes the periodic transfer of food
from hand/foot to mouth and travel of one or two steps between
searches. Several foraging motions can be used. For example,
animals may sweep an arm from side to side and move substrate
with the back of the hand or pick up the substrate and place or
throw it aside, or a substrate might be picked up and held while
an animal forages through it. To pick up food items, animals
will use a finger pinch (forefinger or middle finger and thumb
or tip of forefinger or middle finger for small forage
items). A variety of postures may also be assumed while an
animal forages: tripedal with free arm foraging, sitting,
squatting, or lying ventrally while resting on forearm(s) or
elbow(s).
Food carry: Travel while holding food items. Food can be
carried by mouth, hand, feet, in the crook of the arm, against
the chest, against the stomach, or any combination of these
methods. Animals walk bipedally (rarely), tripedally (most
commonly), or quadrupedally. Animals will knuckle walk with
food in their hands or will walk on the back of the hands/wrists
while holding food. When climbing, animals will frequently
carry food in their mouths. Animals may also scoot along for
short distances while carrying food.
Food gather: See object gather.
Food process: Various manipulations of food items (provisions,
browse, bedding) that give an animal access to an otherwise
inaccessible edible or preferred portion. This might involve
one or more of the following: stripping (usually length wise),
peeling, shredding, breaking apart, husking, shelling, or
shaking apart. Each action can be carried out with the teeth,
hands, lips, or feet, but usually occur in combination. Visual
and olfactory inspection of food frequently occurs during
processing. Individuals usually sit while food processing, but
will also recline ventrally.
Food beg: The animals will extend arms and clap hands together
several times or will clap hands together and then open hands
palms upwards. Hands are held in a relaxed manner with fingers
curled inwards. Knuckles on each hand are actually tapped
gently together. If this does not get a response, the animals
may rap on the bars or doors. Grunt-like vocalizations may
accompany begging. This behavior is usually directed towards a
keeper.
Eat: Placement of food items in the mouth by hands, feet, or
lips followed by chewing and swallowing. "Eat" does not require
that a substrate be manipulated in order to obtain food. Visual
inspection, olfactory inspection, manipulation, and/or food
processing may occur prior to and during eating. Food may be
regular provisions (record separately), browse or forage (record
separately), or body waste (record separately) (excrement,
cerumen, nasal mucus, scabs, sweat, dead skin, etc).
Individuals have also been observed to wipe sweat from their arm
pits with their hands and then lick their hands.
Drink: Animals drink from fountains, pools, streams, or from
areas where fluid has accumulated. Similar drinking postures
are used by the Dallas individuals. From a quadruped stance, an
animal either bends forward and places both hands against a
wall, fountain edge, or on each side of the body; or crouches
down with torso supported by all four bent limbs and ventrum
close to the ground. The head is horizontal when drinking. The
animals will lick up fluids or suck them directly into the
mouth. Fluids may be water or juice (record separately), or
urine (record separately),
Regurgitate and reingest: Expelling stomach contents through the
mouth and then consuming the regurgitate. Specify body position
during regurgitate, location regurgitation is deposited in,
method of reingest, body position during reingest. Specify body
position while regurgitating:
Tilt position - The legs are straight or slightly bent at
the knees. Body is bent at the hips with the torso
straight and angled downwards. Body weight is supported by
one forearm, both forearms (parallel along the orientation
of the body, parallel and running across the chest or
crossed across the chest) or one or both arms can be
resting with the palms flat on the ground and elbows
pointing out to the sides or backwards along the body.
The head is lower than the hips. Dallas gorillas will
regurgitate onto a surface or into their mouths from this
position. The gorillas will assume a tilt posture usually
from a sitting or squatting stance. Several head bobs
frequently occur prior to regurgitation.
Lie ventral - The animal reclines ventrally on the ground,
resting on the forearms (which are held parallel across the
chest). Head bobs usually precede regurgitation.
Quadrupedal stance - The animal assumes a quadrupedal
stance with legs and arms bent to varying degrees, but the
torso remains parallel to the ground. Vomitus is
forcefully expelled from 1/3 to 1/2 m (1.5 ft) above the
receiving surface.
Quick tilt - From a squat or sit position the animal
rapidly tilts forwards on its palms then quickly returns to
the previous position (looks like a pushup from a sitting
position). The gorilla might straighten its back legs a
bit when tilting forward but bends them again when it
returns to the sit/squat position. Regurgitation is
usually into the mouth and reingestion occurs while in the
sit/squat position.
Headshake - From a sitting or squatting position the
gorilla moves its head to one side and slightly upwards in
a somewhat circular motion or quickly up and down. The
mouth might open and then close quickly. The movement can
be so slight that it may seem as if the gorilla is moving
its head in order to relieve a crick in the neck. It may
be mistaken for a comfort movement. The gorilla appears to
regurgitate into the mouth; cheek bulging and chewing
movement can be seen. Vomitus is usually retained in the
mouth.
Methods of reingestion:
Reingest with the hand - An animal will dip or run its
fingers and whole hand into vomitus and then lick the
material off. Usually, the material has a liquid
consistency. An animal sometimes uses its hand to scoop
and maintain vomitus in small puddle. If the vomitus is
thick or chunky, the fingers and thumb, in a pincer motion,
are used to pick up matter and transfer it to the mouth.
Reingest with the mouth - Use mouth, lips and tongue to
suck, lick, or pick up vomitus.
Positions for reingestion:
Squat on elbows - Feet are flat on the ground, the body is
bent forward at the hips so that the ventrum is on the
ground. The gorilla is resting on the forearm(s). Hand or
mouth will be used to reingest from this position.
Sit/squat - Animal assumes a sit or squat posture
(described elsewhere) after the quadrupedal, quick tilt, or
head shake regurgitation.
Lie ventral - Similar to the squat on elbows position but
the feet are not flat on the ground but extend out from the
body. The usually rests on the forearms.
Tilt position - This is the same posture as used during the
regurgitation phase.
Stereotypic, unusual, aberrant behavior:
Stereotypic: Stereotypic behavior is characterized by excessive
repetition of or lack of variation in vocalizations, movements,
postures, or patterns of travel.
Stereotypic posture: Prolonged maintenance of an unusual or
bizarre stance, placement of extremities, or attitude. Specify
act.
Stereotypic movement: Involves body or limb movements but not
travel.
Head circle: A series of 2-12 unidirectional head rotations
which occur most frequently while in a quadrupedal stance with
the head, neck, and shoulders oriented towards a corner of an
enclosure. The head is only 1/3 to 1/2 m from the wall. This
behavior has been observed only in the younger silverbacked
male.
Head swing: This motion is similar to head circles but the head
hangs down and swings back and forth. The head does not make
full rotations. It occurs mainly while sideways walking and
occasionally while facing the wall or into a corner. This
behavior has been observed only in the younger silverbacked
male.
Rock: Legs are bent and the knees are near chest, arms are on
knees or folded across chest. From this position, the animal
sways from side to side (movements are no more than 5-10 cm to
each side). This is usually done while the animal's back or
side is against a vertical structure but has occurred while it
is gripping the cage bars with its hands or while perched
on a horizontal bar. Rocking occurs in association with finger
sucking. This behavior has been observed only in the younger
adult female.
Hand clap: Hands, with fingers curled in, are brought together
rapidly several times. This behavior has been observed only in
the younger adult female.
Stereotypic locomotion: Repetitive, unvarying, and seemingly
meaningless pattern of travel.
Pace: Repetitious, patterned and usually unidirectional movement
around the exhibit/habitat. The animal seldom makes more than
two complete circles about an enclosure. Pacing speed is faster
than the usual walking speed. This behavior is seen in the
younger silverbacked male and in both adult females.
Stereotypic self-oriented: Excessive repetition of an unvarying
form of self manipulation or self grooming.
Finger sucking: Animal will insert forefinger and/or middle
finger of either hand completely into mouth. Seen frequently in
association with rocking. Occurs while the animal is in a
sitting, squatting, or perched position. Legs are bent up near
chest, arms are on knees, or folded across chest. This behavior
has been observed only in the younger adult female.
Belly scratching: Belly scratching consists of a rhythmic
flexion of fingers or up and down movement of wrists so that the
fingers are rubbed gently across the stomach region. Hands may
alternate scratching, scratch in unison, or scratch singly. The
animal will belly scratch while holding straw in the scratching
hand. The scratching posture is sitting with knees acutely bent
and rotated outwards so the soles of feet are flat against each
other or legs may be slightly extended with feet gripping cage
bars. Seen only in the older adult female.
Stereotypic object use: Repetitive, unvarying, and seemingly
useless manipulation of an object.
Stereotypic noises (Auditory): Repetitive, unvarying, and
seemingly useless production of sound. This does not include
the occasional production of unusual sounds or noise.
Motor boat sounds: Forcing air through tight lips makes a sound
similar to a high pitched motor boat. Emissions are of short
duration (< 1 sec), but occur in series (one bout had 35).
Occurs primarily while the animal is in a resting/idle posture.
This behavior has only been observed in the younger silverback
male.
Unusual/idiosyncratic:..........
Lip hang: The lower lip droops loosely down exposing gums
and inner lips. This behavior occurs in a
variety of contexts, such as after aggressive
encounters, during resting periods, during
foraging bouts, while locomoting, while
manipulating objects, and when head circling or
head swinging. This behavior has been
observed only in the younger silverbacked male
who displays it frequently and incorporates it
into many behavior patterns.
Affiliative:
Reproductive/Sexual:
Precopulatory: Sexual behavior which occurs prior to
copulatory mounting.
Penile erection:There is no mounting. This is very difficult
to observe.
Inspect genitalia:Close visual, tactile, or olfactory scrutiny
of the genitalia or genital region of another.
Touch: An animal briefly touches, holds, fondles, or
mouths the genitalia of another.
Olfactory/sniff: An animal leans over and presumably sniffs
the genital region of another. Touching
another's genitalia and then sniffing the
fingers/hand is included in this category.
Solicit: One animal engages in a variety of postures,
gestures, or movements which have a high
probability of eliciting sexual behavior from
another.
Stare: Female stands motionless while intensely
watching the male.
Extended arm
invitation: Female reaches toward male with arm stretched
and palm facing the male.
Head jerk: While staring at a male, a female
intermittently tosses her head to one side.
Her body appears relaxed and the lips are not
compressed.
Present
quadrupedal: Female stands on all four limbs (see stand
quadrupedal) and orients her anogenital region
directly towards another animal. She may
slightly elevate her hindquarters or display a
head jerk.
Back into: Female first presents and then walks backward
into the male.
Open leg display:Female slides down past another while her
legs are spread widely apart. This behavior
occurs in a playful context.
Crouch: While in front of another, female bends low to
the ground with her limbs pulled underneath
her.
Ground object tap:While male is oriented towards a female, he
repeatedly taps the substrate with the
fingertips of both hands.
Haunch scoot: While squatting, a female uses her arms to
propel herself towards the male.
Quad-bounce: While standing on all fours and facing another
animal, a female bounces her hindquarters up
and down. Similar to a haunch bounce, but done
while animal is standing--may be a form of
masturbation as well as solicitation.
Pronk: While standing quadrupedally and facing another
animal, a female hops about in a jerky fashion.
The hindquarters are slightly elevated.
Pronk-mount: A female pronks while grasping another animal
around the waist.
Play present: A female presents in an "apparently playful
context"?. The angle of bend at the hips is
greater than in the other "present" solicit.
The female may rest on her forearms and
occasionally look backwards (over her shoulder
or between her legs) at the male.
Copulatory:
Mount attempt: Male attempts to make genital contact with
female (in any posture), but the attempt fails.
Mount: One animal positions itself on another such
that their genitalia are in contact (can be
same sexed), mount is of short duration with no
pelvic thrust observed. Orientation of mount
can be dorso-ventral, ventro-ventral, or
ventro-lateral.
. Copulation: One animal mounts another in any orientation
(D/V, V/V, L/V). Mounting is followed by about
30 to 45 sec of position adjustments before
pelvic thrusting begins. During copulation the
female exhibits compressed lips and the male
exhibits pursed lips. The female will
occasionally look over her shoulder at the
male, and sometimes wave her head side to side
with her eyes closed and may emit copulatory
whimpers. It is very difficult to observe
intromission.
Reach around: During copulation, while in the D/V position,
the female twists shoulders and neck to look at
the male, and reaches back and touches the male
on the head.
Copulatory whimpers:
Pursed/compressed lips:
Postcopulatory:
Touch genitalia:Visual and tactile inspection of an
individual's own genitalia following
copulation.
Vocalization: After copulation.
Play: Repetitive, exaggerated, disjointed, and
seemingly nonpurposeful behavior involving two
or more individuals. This behavior is
accompanied by the "play face" which is
characterized by an open mouth which partially
exposes the teeth, but the lips are relaxed at
the edges. Social play may be accompanied by
soft chuckling or a throaty grumbling. Both
gentle and aggressive components may be
observed, so it is easily confused with
aggression (which is generally much louder).
Contact/direct play:Two or more individuals are engaged in play
involving almost continuous contact. This
includes such interactive acts as:
Stand/climb on, wrestle, slap/beat, tickle,
poke, grab, kick, carry, ambush, tag,
push/nudge, swat, tap on another, object
tug/grab, mouth (specify act).
No contact/
indirect play: Two or more individuals are involved in play
that does not involve direct contact. This
could include such acts as:
Chase, throw at, ground/water slap, object
wave/shake/brush on ground, arm shake, chest
beat, body slap (own), circle (specify act).
Solicit play: One animal engages in a series of postures,
movements, or gestures (runaway, swagger,
chestbeat) which has a high probability of
eliciting play from another.
Parallel play: Two animals engage in lone or object play (see
those categories) within proximate distance of
one another.
Groom:
Allogroom: One animal manipulates the fur, extremity, or
orifice of another. During a grooming episode,
the groomer often looks intently at the portion
of the body which is being manipulated.
Grooming may include both manual and oral
components.
Manual: Individuals use the fingers and whole hand to
manipulate and remove materials.
Oral: Use of mouth and lips to manipulate and/or
remove materials.
Mutual groom: Same as above, except the two animals groom
each other simultaneously.
Allomanipulate: One animal rubs, pats at, or fondles the fur,
orifices, or extremities of another (not
including genitalia).
Social locomotor: Involves travel while in contact with another.
Buddywalk: Animals walking tripedally or bipedally while
holding each other across the shoulder or on
the hips. This form of travel could involve
more than one other individual.
Carry/cling: One animal transports or is transported by
another:
Ventral carry/cling: While standing or moving quadrupedally
the focal animal transports another which is hanging on
to its ventrum (carry). The walk is
quadrupedal or tripedal (if the focal animal is
using one of its arms to support the
passenger). The focal animal is transported in
the manner described above (cling).
Dorsal or lateral c/c:While standing or moving quadrupedally,
the focal animal transports another on its
back, side, neck, shoulders, or head (carry) or
is transported by another in this manner
(cling).
Extended arm carry:An animal carries another (usually an
infant) in the palm of the hand and walks
either tripedally (carrying the infant football
style) or quadrupedally (carrying arm is
inverted and weight is on the backside of the
hand/wrist).
Leg drag: An animal holds onto another's ankle and is
pulled along in the direction in which latter
animal is traveling.
General social contact:
Active maintenance
of contact: Consists of a group of actions which establish,
regulate, or maintain contact with another.
Withdraw: One animal moves from within to beyond contact
distance of another.
Approach: One animal moves from beyond contact distance
to within contact distance of another.
Maintain: Preserve social distance with a withdrawing
animal.
Follow:One animal maintains proximity (1-3 BL)
with another and simultaneously parallels its
route of travel. Delay of follow is minimal.
Restrain:One animal physically prevents another
from moving out of contact distance.
Fetch/retrieve:One animal approaches and makes
contact (grasp, pull, push) with a withdrawing
animal or one who is beyond social distance (4
m), which results in that individual returning
to an original location or group.
Herd:An individual guides the movement of an
individual or troop by a series of approaches
and withdrawals.
Greet: Involves a group of actions which occur when
individuals are seeing each other for the first
time or are entering into the contact distance
of one another. These actions are typically
brief (momentary to 5 sec).
Muzzle-muzzle:One animal places its face within
15 cm of another's muzzle.
Kiss:One animal places its lips against the
head or face of another.
Touch:One animal reaches with any limb and
makes contact with another on any part of the
body except the genital region. The contact is
momentary (1-2 sec).
Embrace: One animal wraps arms and/or legs
around the body of another. Duration is short
(< 10 sec).
Grasp:One animal momentarily seizes another
with the hand(s).
Offer food:An animal holds food in the hand and
then extends that hand towards another.
Inactive social contact:Individuals are inactive, are within
social proximity (0-4 m) of one another, and
have the option to withdraw from social
proximity.
Huddle: Two or more individuals are inactive with
torsos in direct contact, lateral or ventral.
Arms may be wrapped around one another.
Rest in contact:Individuals are inactive with some part of
the body (exclusive of the position described
in huddle) in contact i.e., back to back, toes
touching, arms intertwined.
Rest proximate:Individuals are inactive, not in contact, but
within arms length of one another.
Rest distal: Individuals are inactive, not in contact,
greater than arms length away but within 4 m of
one another.
Agonistic:
Submissive/avoidance:
Turn away: An animal moves its body so that it is oriented
away from another, but does not travel.
Avoid: An animal moves out of the path of an
approaching animal or takes a less direct route
around that animal.
Hide: An animal removes itself from the view of
another. This may occur following an
aggressive attack or threat.
Crouch/crawl: This behavior can take two forms: 1) An animal
bends all four limbs, presses its ventrum to
the ground, and may try to travel while in this
position; or 2) the animal may crouch while in
one of the sitting positions by lowering the
head, hunching the shoulders, and often
covering the head with an arm.
Present: May take two forms. One form is similar to a
sexual present, but is much briefer. It may be
accompanied by a series of brief glances
directed towards the presentee. An animal may
also "offer-up" or present an arm to the
presentee. (specify act)
Run away: An animal moves rapidly (with a running gait)
away from another.
Supplant:
Supplant position:An animal approaches another which then moves
away. The former assumes the position of the
latter.
Supplant take object:An animal takes an object from another or
picks up one which was dropped as the former
approached.
Threat: Posture, facial expression, or movement,
usually accompanied by a vocalization, which
results in keeping rivals at a distance,
obtaining desired objects or space, and
controlling another's behavior without undue
expenditure of energy or risk of injury
(McFarland, 1982, slightly modified).
Threat: May appear to be undirected and for our
purposes, does not involve movement towards
another.
Stare: An animal looks towards and fixates on another
for an extended time. The brow is furrowed and
the face is tense.
Tight lipped face:An animal's lips are compressed tightly so
that the upper and lower lips protruded
somewhat.
Rigid quadrupedal
stance: An animal assumes a quadrupedal stance, with
the legs widely spaced and placed behind the
torso. The arms are rigid with elbows rotated
outwards, and the weight of the upper body on
the knuckles.
Rigid quadrupedal
walk: From the rigid quadrupedal stand, an animal
moves forwards with short stiff steps. The
walking speed may be faster than normal,
creating a trot like gait. This is undirected.
Object slap: An animal slaps ground, rock, wall, tree, door,
etc., with the palm or back of the hand. This
usually results in a loud sound.
Head divert: One animal turns its head away from another in
an exaggerated manner and glances repeatedly
and rapidly back at them.
Yawn: The mouth opens widely, head tips back, lips
are pulled back so that the teeth are exposed.
Looks like exaggerated form of a yawn.
Chest beat: An animal repetitively strikes the chest or
belly area with outstretched or cupped hands.
The animal is usually bipedal; either walking,
running, standing, or standing and rapidly
swaying. An animal may also strike his/her
chest once with a cupped hand. This can occur
in any posture. The chest beat, like all
agonistic behavior, may include a vocal
component such as a roar or pant hoots. Note:
chest beating can be observed in a number of
contexts: i.e., lone and social play,
reproductive, and agonistic.
Ground slap: An animal thumps the ground with one or both
hands. The strike may be with open hands, back
of hands, or side of closed fists.
Directed chest beat:An animal chest beats while oriented
towards another.
Directed object slap:An animal strikes at an object with an
open hand while oriented towards another.
Open mouth threat:An animal looks at another and lunges
forward with a tense, open-mouthed expression.
The lips are raised and pulled back so that the
canines are exposed; muscles in the forehead
are taut.
Threat display:A series of threats, postures, facial
expressions, or movements, that are accompanied
by a roar, bar, or rumble vocalization. Many
of the threat displays include a rapid advance
directed towards specific individuals.
Bluff charge: An animal runs quadrupedally on the diagonal
past another but does not make contact. The
bluff charge usually ends in a slide, and may
be accompanied by an object flail, drag, or
throw.
Rush charge: An animal runs quadrupedally towards, but stops
just short of another.
Object grab: One animal grasps or snatches an object (food,
browse, or otherwise) from another.
Attack: Includes hostile acts involving active pursuit
or physical contact between two individuals.
Hit: While rapidly charging towards another
(bipedally or quadrupedally), one animal
reaches out and strikes the other with an open
hand or fist.
Hit with object:An animal uses an object to strike out and
makes contact with another. This behavior
occurs at the end of a charge.
Hit/slap: An animal strikes another with its hand(s), but
there is not charge component to this behavior.
Push: Animal uses arms or legs to forcefully move
another away.
Pull: An animal grasps another and forcefully moves
them closer.
Chase: An animal runs in pursuit of another which is
rapidly withdrawing.
Bite: An animal closes its mouth on the extremities
or body of another. Damage may or may not
occur.
Author Note:
The authors would like to acknowledge that this ethogram was derived
in part from ethograms provided by the Los Angeles Zoo, Zoo Atlanta,
and Seattle, as well as through observations of the gorillas located
at the Dallas Zoo.
.Bowen, R. A. (1980). The behaviour of three hand-reared lowland
gorillas (Gorilla gorilla gorilla) with
emphasis on the response to a change in
accommodation. Dodo, R. Jersey Wildlife
Preservation Trust, 17, 63-79.
Purpose: To measure effects of change in accommodation.
Sampling methods: Scans, one minute intervals for one hour
periods.
Ethogram key words:Activity budgets/General behaviors, Environment
change, Influence of.
Behaviors: (full listing available from author)
Resting: Lying, sitting, standing, clinging and hanging,
except when accompanied by any other behavior;
thus leaving only those occasions on which the
animal was sedentary in both gross and local
terms (apart from visual behavior or gestures).
Gross locomotion: Walking, running, climbing, brachiating,
swinging, rolling, and wrestling.
Local manipulation:Manipulating with hands or feet, mouthing,
scratching, hairplucking, grooming,
nose-picking, coprophagy, drinking water or
urine, foraging, feeding, and mauling (gentle
wrestling).
Social play: Wrestling, mauling, sparring, chasing and
social grooming.
Self-directed: Grooming, scratching, plucking hairs and
nose-picking.
Visual: Watching, looking at, and glancing at one
another.
Gestures: Including facial expressions (play face and
fear grin), playing-walking/running, tapping
and slapping objects/substrate, chest beating
and patting parts of the body.
Public-oriented: Watching or interacting with members of the
public, by throwing items of food or play
objects, for example.
Feeding: Eating, drinking, foraging for food, coprophagy
and drinking urine.
Stereotyped: 'Rocking' and 'shuffling.' These are
behavioural abnormalities peculiar to captivity
in which the animal sits, sometimes holding a
quantity of wood-wool or similar nesting
material, and either rocks back and forth with
it in a sort of scrubbing motion, or shuffles
backwards with it, using the hands placed on
the surface in front as a means of propulsion.
.Brown, S. G. (1988). Play behaviour in lowland gorillas: Age
differences, sex differences, and possible
functions. Primates, 29(2):219-228.
Purpose: To document play in a large sample of gorilla
groups, in order to better understand the
possible functions of social play in gorillas.
Sampling: Frequencies recorded.
Ethogram key words:Social behavior.
Behaviors:
Solitary play:
Rotational/locomotor:
Twirl:Spinning around bipedally.
Somersault:Turning the body one full rotation
head over heels.
Roll:Turning the body from side to side while
supine; can be complete or incomplete rotation.
Run:Loose limbed gait, usually bipedal.
Self:Slapping the face, clapping hands, or
rubbing oneself without grooming.
Object play: Play with inanimate objects and other species.
Climb/swing: From a tree, boulder, or ledge.
Manipulate: An external object such as grass, dirt, or a
branch.
Throw: An external object while in a relaxed stance.
Swing: An external object while in a relaxed stance.
Water: Water is used in the play sequence.
Social play:
Moderate play:
Open-mouth-
wrestling:Limbs entwined while sitting or
laying; gorillas roll/twist together placing
open mouths on each other.
Active play:
Rough/tumble:Vigorous bipedal wrestling.
Chasing:One gorilla rapidly following another,
both with relaxed running gaits.
Chest-pounding
.duBois, T., Mead, J., & Cox, C. Lowland gorillas: Ethogram. Los
Angeles Zoo.
Ethogram key words:Activity budgets/General behaviors, Social
behavior, Sexual behavior, Display/Agonistic behavior.
Abnormal/Stereotypic behavior, Development, Maternal behavior,
Vocalizations.
Behaviors:
Masturbation:
Manual:An animal rubs its genitals repeatedly
with hands.
Pelvic rub:A female backs up to an object
(tree, rock, etc.) and rubs anogenital area
against it.
Haunch-bounce:While in a squatting position, a
female bounces up and down on her haunches.
(Referred to as Evie's "hiccuping.")
Coo vocalization:Pursed lip vocalization
sometimes given when female's masturbate.
Sexual behavior:
Anogenital touch:An animal examines or fondles
the anogenital region of another.
Anogenital sniff:An animal sniffs the
anogenital region of another, excluding
occasions when the latter animal has just
defecated or has feces on fur.
Stare:A female stands motionless while
intensely observing the male.
Head jerk:While staring, a female
intermittently jerks head to the side. The
body is relaxed and lips are not compressed.
(Referred to as "the come hither look".)
Extended arm invitation:A female extends her
arm with open palm toward the male.
Ground or object tap:While orienting toward the
male, a female repeatedly taps ground, rock or
log with both hands (as if playing a drum).
Haunch-scoot:While squatting, a female uses her
arms to propel herself on her haunches toward
the male.
Quadrupedal-bounce:While standing on all fours
and facing another animal, a female bounces
hindquarters up and down. (Similar to
haunch-bounce but done while animal is standing
- may be form of masturbation as well as sexual
solicitation.)
Pronk:While standing on all fours and facing
another animal, a female hops about in a jerky
fashion. The hindquarters tend to be slightly
elevated. (Behavior "invented" by Cleo.)
Pronk-mount:A female pronks while grasping
another animal around the waist.
Present:A female stands quadrupedally and
orients anogenital region directly toward
another animal; hindquarters are slightly
elevated (but not an exaggerated display as in
some primates).
Back-into:While presenting, a female walks
backwards directly into another animal.
Play-present:A female presents in a playful
context. Form is generally exaggerated, e.g.,
animal bends way over with head close to ground
and rump in the air. (May occur only in young
animals.)
Spread-legs display:A female slides on an
incline past another with legs spread widely
apart. Occurs in a playful context.
Crouch:A female bends low to the ground with
her limbs pulled in. Another animal may then
mount dorso-ventrally.
Lie prone:An animal lies flat on the ground
face downward during a sexual encounter.
Lie supine:An animal lies flat on the ground
face upward during a sexual encounter.
Dorso-ventral mount:An animal mounts another
from behind.
Ventro-ventral mount:An animal mounts another
from the front. (Both animals face each
other.)
Ventro-ventral mount
of infant:An adult animal stands quadrupedally
over a supine infant and thrusts without making
contact.
Awkward mount:An animal mounts another, but
orientation is improper, e.g., mounts from
side, etc.
Mount and thrust:An animal mounts another and
thrusts, but intromission does not occur.
Copulation:An animal mounts another and
intromission occurs (hard to determine whether
ejaculation occurs).
Coo vocalization:Pursed lips vocalization given
by female which may occur before, during or
after copulation.
Reach and touch:During copulation, a female
reaches around with one arm and touches male on
the head.
. Social play:
Social play:Repetitive, exaggerated,
disjointed, and seemingly non-purposeful
behavior involving two or more animals. May
have both gentle and aggressive components.
The list is almost infinite but includes the
following:
Climb or stand on another, turn circles around
another, piggy back ride, peek-a-boo, mouth,
tickle, foot dangle (an animal dangles foot in
front of another), tap on another, dangle (an
animal holds an infant by its hands and allows
it to dangle in the air), arm shake, run-away
(one animal runs away from another as an
invitation to chase), chase or play tag,
swagger walk, chest beat, beat or slap other
body part, ground or water slap, object wave,
shake, or brush on ground (usually a branch),
object throw/hit, object tug/grab, swat, push
or nudge, grab/pull, kick, wrestle, bite,
play-face (relaxed, open-mouth expression with
teeth exposed).
Social other/maternal:
Approach:An animal draws closer to another:
because of context and relaxed body posture,
motivation presumed to be friendly.
Follow:An animal walks behind another; because
of context and relaxed body posture, motivation
presumed to be friendly.
Muzzle-muzzle:An animal places its face
directly in front of another (within 6 inches).
Groom/inspect:Using the hands or mouth, an
animal grooms or examines another's body parts,
excluding the anogenital region except when
feces being removed.
Active contact:Friendly contact behaviors which
occur outside of play context. Includes the
following:
Touch (excluding the genitals), grasp, sniff
(an animal sniffs another's body parts,
excluding anogenital region unless feces are
obviously being sniffed), mouth, kiss (an
animal puckers its lips against head or face of
another), pat or caress, hug or embrace, hold,
huddle (animals sit in groups of two or more
with bodies in close contact).
Passive contact:An animal sits, lies, or
sometimes walks with body in contact with
another. Behavior is not as "intimate" as
active contact, e.g., animals may sit with only
feet touching.
Inside with:Two or more animals, excluding
infants being carried, are inside cave or
planter together and are not visible to the
observer; assume association to be affiliative,
although specific behaviors not visible.
Food offer:An animal offers food, browse, or
regurgitate to another.
Special social behaviors observed in mothers or caretakers:
Rock:A mother supports her infant in arms or on
lap and rocks it back and forth.
Jiggle-bounce:A mother supports her infant in
lap or on legs and bounces and jiggles the
infant.
Dangle-groom:A mother dangles her infant by one
ankle and grooms the anal area.
Flex-manipulate:An animal bends and manipulates
the infant's body parts.
Coax:A mother places her infant on the ground
and then walks away and stands or sits at a
distance. The mother observes infant
intensely, seemingly encouraging it to
approach.
Retrieve:An animal picks up an infant when
infant is alone.
Restrain:An animal holds an infant firmly when
the infant attempts to leave.
Shield:An animal uses its arms or body to
shield an infant from another animal or other
potential danger.
Special social behaviors observed in infants:
Climb on or over:An infant climbs on or over
another animal.
Nose/eye poke:An infant pokes its finger in
another's nose or eye.
Manipulate mother's
nipples:An infant pulls at or handles mother's
nipples (not to be confused with rooting
behavior).
Distress vocalization:An infant whines or cries
when alone; appears to be an attempt to get
mother to return.
Agonistic:
Turn away:An animal turns away from another in
order to avoid, but does not vacate its spot.
Avoid:An animal moves away from or gets out of
path of another.
Crouch:An animal crouches when threatened or
attacked by another.
Hide:An animal presses itself against a surface
so that it is hidden or partially hidden from
the view of another.
Supplant:One animal approaches another and the
latter moves away. The approaching animal then
takes that spot.
Stare:A fixed, unwavering stare at another with
brow furrowed and facial muscles tense.
Tight-lip face:A facial expression in which the
lips are tightly compressed and the head
diverges from side to side.
Stiff stance:An animal stands with the legs
held rigidly and the body stiff and erect;
tight lip face often accompanies.
Strut-walk:While in the stiff stance, an animal
walks with stiff, short steps.
Directed chest beat:An animal chest beats while
orienting toward another gorilla in the same
exhibit.
Directed object slap:An animal orients toward
another and slaps ground, rock, wall, inside
door, or makes loud splash in the pond.
Bluff charge:An animal runs on the diagonal
past another but does not make contact.
Rush charge:An animal rushes up to and stops
just short of another.
Charge with chest beat:While charging, an
animal beats its chest.
Charge w/object display:While charging, an
animal waves or throws an object or slaps
ground with an object (usually browse).
Charge and hit:While charging, an animal hits
another with an object (usually browse).
Leg kick:An animal kicks its leg in the air at
the end of a charge, chest beat or object
display.
Object grab:An animal snatches an object or
browse away from another.
Object drop or throw:An animal drops an object
down on another from above, or throws an
object at another.
Hit with object:An animal hits another with an
object.
Hit/slap:With hands.
Push
Grab/pull
Chase
Open-mouth threat:A tense, open-mouth
expression with lips raised and pulled back so
that canines are exposed; muscles and the
forehead are taut and drawn back.
Agonistic -- Vocalizations:
Soft pant-hoot:A quiet vocalization in which an
animal makes rapid exhalations through "o"
shaped lips. The abdomen may be seen heaving
up and down.
Scream
Pig grunts:Short, rough, guttural grunts.
Growl:A deep, guttural noise similar to a dog's
growl.
Bark:A deep, gruff noise similar to a dog's
bark.
Roar:A loud explosive outburst given by a male
silverback.
Herd/herded:
Herd:A silverback male controls the movement of
a group by following at a close distance
(formerly called pursue; may be an attempt to
keep females together and in sight.)
Herded:Refers to a group being herded by a
silverback male. Animals appear to be avoiding
the male as they move away whenever he
approaches.
Visual attention:
Observe:An animal watches another gorilla in
the same exhibit.
To outside gorillas: [The following behaviors are directed to
gorillas in 1)an adjacent exhibit, 2) in night quarters, or to 3)
"missing" gorillas (gorillas which have recently been sent out).]
Observe:An animal watches another gorilla in an
adjacent exhibit.
Display:Includes behaviors such as chest
beating, object throwing, waving, etc., which
are directed toward gorillas in an adjacent
exhibit.
Bang door:An animal bangs on the inside door
when there are group members kept inside night
quarters.
Search:An animal travels about exhibit or goes
in and out of cave seemingly looking for a
missing group member.
Hoot series vocalization:Low pitched "hoo hoo
hoos" which can build up to more plaintive
sounding, higher-pitched "hoos." Vocalization
often terminated by banging on door and has
been heard only when group members are missing.
Stereotyped behavior:
Head toss:An animal repeatedly tosses its head
in circular fashion; sometimes followed by
regurgitation and reingestion.
Arm fling:While sitting, an animal repeatedly
flings its arm out for no obvious reason.
Hair pluck:An animal plucks hair from its own
body, usually the facial region.
Self-flagellation:While sitting, an animal
flogs itself with browse.
Regurgitation and reingestion: [Refers to behaviors in which food
is brought up from the stomach to the mouth and then eaten.
Gorillas tend to use idiosyncratic methods.]
Reg. into cupped hand:An animal regurgitates
into hand and then eats out of hand.
Reg. onto substrate:An animal bends over,
regurgitates onto ground and then ingests
directly from ground.
Bent-arm regurgitate:An animal lifts and bends
arm at elbow while regurgitating in a jerky
fashion into cupped hand.
Suck-regurgitate:An animal brings lips into
extreme sucking position and brings regurgitate
up into mouth.
Backward neckAn animal leans head backward with
neck stretched taut,
stretch regurgitate: then regurgitates with
mouth closed.
Regurgitate into mouth:An animal makes "o"
shape with lips and brings regurgitate up into
mouth.
Head jerk regurgitate:An animal jerks head in
circular fashion while bringing up
regurgitate.
Bend over regurgitate:While sitting, an animal
bends over with mouth close to the ground and
regurgitates into mouth.
Self-play and object explore:
Self-play:Includes all solitary play behaviors
which are not directed to other animals or to
the zoo patrons, including:
Rock body, roll on ground or grass, somersault,
turn circles, thigh slap/pat, chest pat (very
mild chest beating), lip flap (using fingers),
clap hands, manipulate body parts (exaggerated
body or head rubbing, pulling on toes, etc.),
water play (wading, splashing, etc.), object
play (waving branches, tossing leaving in air,
playing with tubs, burlaps sacks, etc.).
Object explore and Refers to all behaviors in
which an animal uses its hands
manipulate:to investigate or handle objects,
excluding those which are preparatory to
feeding, including:
Browse manipulate, browse or object wear (an
animal drapes browse, burlap sack, etc., over
back, shoulders, head), other vegetation
inspect/manipulate (rubbing grass on body,
throwing grass clumps in air, etc.),
manipulate feces or regurgitate (not associated
with ingestion), poke at dirt/dig holes, rub
self with dirt, mouth objects (including
biting, sucking, licking, chewing, or
manipulating with tongue), manipulate
miscellaneous objects (such as drain covers),
items thrown in by patrons, etc.), observe
objects (visual examination of an object which
is being held or which is within reach), sniff
objects, and carry objects (in mouth, hand, or
on small of back).
Food getting and ingestion:
Ingest:Includes the following: eat browse, eat
grass, weeds, leaves, bark, flowers, or other
vegetation, eat miscellaneous food items
(including food thrown in by keepers and
patrons), spit food out, drink, eat food out of
another animal's mouth (seen in infants).
Forage:Behaviors which are preparatory to
feeding. Includes the following: gathering,
carrying, or dragging browse, bark stripping,
gathering and eating seeds, picking and/or
carrying grass, weeds, leaves, bark, flowers,
or other vegetation or food items.
Audience interaction:
Audience interaction:Includes all behaviors in
which an animal interacts with humans (keepers,
patrons, etc.), or vehicles drawn in front of
an exhibit. Includes: approach/observe,
extend arm (animal stretches arm outward toward
audience, probably begging for food), point at,
clap hands, arm shake, blow kisses, self-play
behaviors (which are obviously directed to
audience), chest pats, splash water, object
throw (including feces, dirt clods, rocks,
etc.), threaten audience (animal directs
agonistic behavior toward humans, including
growl, roar, open-mouth threat, bluff charge,
chest beat).
Carry/cling or ride:
Ventral carry/cling:While standing or moving
quadrupedally an animal carries an infant who
clings to the ventrum.
Dorsal or lateral
carry/cling:While standing or moving
quadrupedally an animal carries an infant on
the back, side, neck, shoulders or head.
Leg drag:An infant grasps another's ankle and
clings while the latter animal walks about.
Extended arm carry:An animal carries an infant
in palm of outstretched hand and walks
tripedally (the "football carry").
Tripedal walk:An animal holds infant against
the ventrum and walks tripedally.
Locomotion: [Includes all forms of movement and travel occurring
outside of a friendly/social or agonistic context. Also excludes
self play and occasions when an animal is carrying an infant.]
Walk quadrupedally:An animal walks on four
legs.
Walk tripedally:An animal walks on three legs.
Walk bipedally:An animal walks on two legs.
Stand quadrupedally
Stand bipedally
Climb
Scoot
Slide
Roll
Jump
Hang by arms
Swing by arms
Run: (in non-agonistic context).
Change stance:Go from sitting to standing
position, etc.
Special locomotor behaviors observed in infants:
Arm/leg flail:An infant jerks its arms and/or
legs about in a seemingly random fashion.
Root:An infant gropes and moves head about
mother's ventrum in search of mother's nipple.
Crawl:An infant drags its prone body along the
ground.
Toddle:An infant walks quadrupedally with
short, uncertain steps.
Rest and body maintenance:
Rest:Periods of quiet repose in which any of
the following behaviors may occur:
Sit/lie without performing other behaviors,
sleep, yawn, stretch, cough, comfort movements
(slight position shifts or rolling over while
resting).
Self-exploration and
body maintenance:Includes the following
behaviors:
Groom/self-inspect (an animal picks at or
examines its toes, hands, or any other body
parts), oral explore (an animal mouths or licks
its body parts), scratch, nose-pick, sniff
self, rub eyes, pick teeth, rub self, poke
anus/remove feces.
Urinate/defecate
Vomit:(when not part of R/R).
Look out/look about:An animal sits or lies
quietly but appears to be observing
environment, although specific object of focus
is not apparent (same as "stationary alert").
Special rest behaviors seen in infants:
Nurse:An infant suckles at its mother's breast
(it is often hard for an observer to tell
whether an infant is nursing or sleeping, so we
are including "nurse" under rest behaviors).
Other: [These include behaviors which do not readily fall into any
category or whose functions are unclear.]
Non-directed agonistic:Includes agonistic
behaviors such as chest beat, growl, object
slap, etc., which do not appear directed toward
other gorillas or to audience, and which occur
outside of play context.
Interspecific agonism:An animal directs
agonistic behavior toward animals other than
gorillas or humans (e.g., swiping at insects,
chasing peacocks, etc.).
Visual exploreIncludes the following: visual
attention toward objects in
environment:environment which are not within
reach (such as planes, helicopters, etc.), and
observe animals other than gorillas or humans
(such as peacocks, insects, etc.).
Eat feces
Drink urine
Eat another's regurgitate
Monitor/search:An animal looks about exhibit as
if to locate the whereabouts of other group
members.
Armpit sniff/touch/
manipulate:An animal sniffs or touches own
armpit, or manipulates area under armpit.
Nipple rub:An animal repeatedly rubs its own
nipple.
Self-directed lactating
behaviors:Behaviors shown by lactating mothers
including:
Manipulate nipples, squirt milk from nipples,
and bend over to drink milk from own nipples.
Escape/escape attempt:An animal attempts or
succeeds in climbing out of exhibit. May stand
on back of another gorilla to reach handhold.
Nest-build:An animal manipulates browse around
itself to form a crude, circular nest.
Not visible:An animal is not visible to the
observer excluding cases of inside with..
Elliott, R. C. (1976). Observations on a small group of mountain
gorillas (Gorilla gorilla beringei). Folia
Primatologica, 25, 12-24.
Purpose: To summarize the characteristics of range and
behaviour in a small gorilla group.
Sampling methods: Modified time sampling technique to record
inter-individual distance data. Position
mapped at 10 min intervals. Longhand field
notes apparently taken on behavior, but no info
on how or definitions.
Ethogram key words:Activity budgets/General behaviors, Field study,
Gorilla g. beringei.
Behaviors:
Agonistic behavior
Allogrooming
Social play
Vocalizations
.Fischer, R. B. (1984). Observations of group introductions in
lowland gorillas. Behavioural Processes,
9, 293-296.
Purpose: To investigate agonistic responses during and
just after group formation.
Sampling: Two hours of continuous observation followed
each introduction.
Ethogram key words:Display/Agonistic behavior,
Introductions/Socialization.
Behaviors:
Nonagonistic behaviors:
Proximity:When two or more animals were less
than 4 m apart for at least one minute.
Arm-over:Lateral extension of arm towards
another. Arm was typically relaxed.
Aggression has not been observed following
approach preceded by arm-over.
Agonistic behaviors:
Contact aggression:Frequencies of hitting,
biting or grappling observed between
individuals.
Noncontact aggression:Instances of directed
pursuit (subsuming charging and chasing),
demonstration (species typical postural and
facial displays, chest beating, throwing, or
aggressively striking an object as part of a
sequence of activities), and lunging.
Behaviors not clearly directed toward a
specific individual were omitted.
.Fossey, D. (1972). Vocalizations of the mountain gorilla (Gorilla
gorilla beringei). Animal Behaviour, 20:36-53.
Purpose: To describe the vocalizations of the mountain
gorilla.
Ethogram key words:Vocalizations, Field study, Gorilla g. beringei.
Behaviors: (See also: Fossey, D. (1983). Gorillas in the
mist. Boston: Houghton Mifflin.)
Roar: Monosyllabic loud outburst of low-pitched harsh
sound, lasting from .20 to .65 seconds,
beginning and ending abruptly. Individual
differences in frequency concentrations. Heard
only from silverbacks in situations of stress
or threat, and primarily directed at human
beings, although occasionally at buffalo herds.
Always followed, on the part of the emitter,
with varying degrees of display, ranging from
bluff charges to small forward lunges.
Alarm calls:
Scream:Shrill and prolonged emission of
extremely loud sound, lasting up to 2.13
seconds and repeated as often as 10 times.
Individual differences not denoted. Screams
heard from all age and sex classes, but most
frequently from silverbacks. Vocalization
heard most often during intragroup disputes,
though could be directed toward human beings or
ravens if alarm rather than threat was
motivation for call.
Wraagh:Explosive monosyllabic loud vocal
outburst not as deep as a roar nor as shrill as
a scream. Began and ended abruptly and lasted
between .2 and .8 second. Individual
differences in sound, which were more
harmonically structured than roars. Heard from
all adults but most frequently from
silverbacks. Usually precipitated by sudden
situations of stress--the unexpected arrival of
an observer, etc. Most effective in scattering
group members and never accompanied by
aggressive display behavior.
Question bark:Characteristic composition of
three notes with the first and third lower than
the middle, as if asking the question "Who are
you?" Sound was short, lasting between .2 and
.3 second, heard more from silverbacks.
Usually in situations of mild alarm or
curiosity and was common response to discovery
of obscured observer, etc.
Cries:Resembling wails of human infants, could
build up into shrieks much like human beings'
temper tantrums. Emitted between .03 and .05
seconds apart, and could last for nearly 19
seconds. Wails had four distinct frequency
concentrations, but shrieks were much less
structured. Cries were heard only from infants
or young juveniles, frequently when left alone.
Cries built up into temper tantrums if
stressful situation was prolonged.
. Coordination Vocalizations:
Pig-grunts:Series of short, rough, guttural
noises, pig-grunts are usually delivered
between .15 and .4 seconds apart in sequences
of nine or ten outbursts. Resembling grunting
of pigs feeding, tended to become louder and
more closely spaced if prolonged. Most
frequently heard during traveling, when trail
disputes and altercations over limited food
resources were more apt to occur. Pig-grunts
were effective rebuttal vocalizations and
disciplinary enforcements between adults and
young.
Belch vocalizations:Deep, prolonged rumbles
(naoom, naoom, naoom) rather like
throat-clearing utterances. The belch
vocalization is one of the most complex because
of multiple intergradations and functional
variations. Variations heard from all sex and
age classes. For expressing contentment and
verifying position; a slightly shortened belch
vocalization was often used when mildly
disciplining gorilla young or observers.
Chuckles:Raspy expirations of noise verge in
intensity depending on degree of play involved.
Irregularly spaced spurts of sound varying from
.02 to .1 seconds with low frequency
concentration. No individual differences.
Intergroup vocalizations:
Hootseries preceding
chestbeats:Given with or without a terminating
chestbeat, consists of prolonged distinct
hoo-hoo-hoos. Low-pitched, often undetectable
to human ear at beginning, but usually built up
into plaintive-sounding and longer hoots
toward the end. The lengthier the series, the
more fluctuations in harmony and phasing.
Frequencies ranged between 1.4 and 1.8
kilocycles per second for as many as
eighty-four hoots per second. Silverbacks were
most frequent emitters. Depending on distance
between groups, would or would not terminate
vocalizations with displays.
.Fossey, D. (1979). Development of the mountain gorilla (Gorilla g.
beringei): The first thirty-six months. In D.
A. Hamburg and E. R. McCown (Eds.), Great apes
of Africa (pp. 139-186). Menlo Park, CA:
Benjamin-Cummings.
Purpose: To begin describing quantitatively individual
differences of mother-infant relations; also
describes behavior during pregnancy.
Sampling method: Ad lib field notes, later classified under
specific subject headings. Data were then
grouped according to two month units of infant
age (e.g., 1-2 months old). This paper also
describes physical development in detail.
Ethogram key words:Development, Pregnancy, Behavior during, Field
study, Gorilla g. beringei.
Behaviors: (3 main categories: maintenance activities,
maternal interactions, and social awareness,
listed according to time unit.) (See also:
Fossey, D. (1983). Gorillas in the mist.
Boston: Houghton Mifflin.)
Newborn (first 24 hrs):
Whines:Weak, puppy-type.
Grasping reflex
Rooting
Nuzzling of nipple
Sleep
Ventral carry
Grooming by mother
Nurse
1-2 months:
Ventral clinging
Ventral carry
Low abdominal ride
Thigh ride
Dorsal ride
Rooting
Nuzzling of nipple
Mouthing or chewing of
vegetation debris
Sleep
Whines
Wails:Loud, high pitched.
Exploring own body
Rolling over
Creeping
Look around
Grooming by mother
Nurse
. 2-4 months:
Ventral clinging
Ventral carry
Dorsal ride
Crawl
Sitting attempts
Kick, whack, push
Exploratory play,
surrounding
vegetation:Gross, jerky extensions with
fingers widely spread before object is
contacted, usually only grasp object.
Exploratory play,
mother's body:Unbalanced crawling, sliding,
patting, and hair pulling.
Discipline:Mock-biting, pushing back at infant.
Eating vegetation debris
Grooming by mother
Distress face
Play face
Whines
Wails
Screeches
Panting play chuckles
Nurse
4-6 months:
Ventral carry
Ventral cling
Dorsal ride
Grooming by mother
Nurse
Exploratory play,
surrounding
vegetation:Includes manipulation of
vegetation.
Exploratory play,
mother's body:More strenuous, includes
mock-wrestling with extremities.
Solo play:Patting, clapping and whacking own
body.
Restrain infant
Eating vegetation:No food prep, just plucking
leaves or gnawing.
Quadrupedal walking
Whines
Wails
Panting chuckles
Screeches
Screams
Sits
Stand bipedally
Social contact w/others
Chest beat
. 6-12 months:
Ventral ride
Dorsal ride
Rump-clinging:Infant follows mother with one or
both hands clasping hair on rump.
Nursing
Solo play:Now includes tree climbing.
Leave mother
Infant restrain
Contact with mother
Within arm's reach
Within 15 feet
Social play
Eating vegetation:No food prep, just plucking
leaves or gnawing.
Genital touching:Mother uses genital touching
as training method by which infant is urged to
crawl, climb, walk, and run (observed only in
captives).
Walk bipedally
Travel quadrupedally
Stand bipedally
Sit
Nurse
Push from nipple
12-24 months:
Dorsal ride
Ventral carry
Travel quadrupedally
Rump-clinging
Nurse
Push from nipple
Social play:More vigorous.
Solo play:Swinging, twirling and
semi-brachiating in trees.
Eating vegetation:Now includes stripping
leaves.
Grooming mother
Chest-patting
Foliage-whacking
Strut-walking
Compressed-lip
Whines
Wails
Panting chuckles
Screeches
Hoot cries
Shrieks
Temper tantrum
screams
Howls
Pig-grunts
Leave mother
Mother restrain
Contact with mother
Within arm's reach
Within 15 feet
. 24-36 months:
Dorsal ride
Travel quadrupedal:Includes canter gait.
Ventral carry
Nursing
Push from nipple
Solo play:Tree play increases, becomes more
inventive and daring.
Social play:Begins including more tree play.
Eating vegetation:Includes preparation:
wadding, stripping, peeling.
Grooming:Includes siblings, peers, and
silverback.
Whines
Wails
Panting chuckles
Screeches
Hoot cries
Shrieks
Temper tantrum
screams
Howls
Pig-grunts
Belch vocalization:Basic disyllabic variant of.
Mount
Leave mother
Mother restrain
Contact with mother
Within arm's reach
Within 15 feet
Behavior during pregnancy:
Proximity
Groom infants
Staring at infants
Contact with mother/infant
Distant travel
Feeding
Mount
Copulation
Irritability
.Fossey, D. (1982). Reproduction among free-living mountain
gorillas.
American Journal of Primatology Supplement,
1:97-104.
Purpose: To summarize status of and reproduction in
free-living gorillas.
Sampling method: Ad lib field notes.
Ethogram key words:Sexual behavior, Field study, Gorilla g.
beringei.
Behaviors:
Copulation: Nearly all solicited by females, most commonly
dorsoventral. Male sat upright or leaned
forward bipedally and held female around waist.
Female squatted on lap or bent forward on
flexed elbows with rump accessible. Brief
adjustment occurred first. Held position from
5 to 20 minutes. Accompanied by
vocalizations, primarily by male. Female often
had compressed lips; male pursed-lips.
Copulation vocalization:Panting and soft hoots.
Solicitation by female:Sometimes included extending hands
fleetingly to touch male's body before
retreating; often included glance over
shoulder.
Glance over shoulder:To male during solicitation: "come hither
look."
Sexual play
Pseudosexual mounting
Interference w/copulation
Genital touching
. Frisch, D. J. Columbus Zoo, Gorilla Birth Watch Protocol.
Purpose: To recognize changes in behavior of pregnant
female, to record onset of labor.
Sampling method: Every 15 minutes, note activity of pregnant
female. If unusual behavior occurs between
interval, write in time and explain.
Ethogram key words:Birthwatch.
Behaviors:
Lie: Being recumbent with little or no weight being
borne on hands or feet.
Sit: Bearing most weight on buttocks.
Stand still: Bearing weight on feet quadrupedally, or
bipedally with hands holding on to mesh, glass,
trees, etc.
Locomote: Walking, running, or climbing.
? Activity can't be scored.
Rest near: Sitting or lying within arm's reach of another
for at least 10 seconds. Initiator is second
animal to rest. The receiver must be
relatively immobile but need not be resting.
Grooming: Directed touching, licking, or intense visual
inspection of another's (GO) or own (GS) skin
or pelage. Scratching excluded.
Intimidation display:Beating on chest or abdomen, beating on cage
surface, rapid exaggerated throwing or shoving
of objects. Score when any two or more of
these behaviors occur simultaneously or
sequentially. Score initiator only.
Rough up: Slapping, poking, elbowing, punching, hair
pulling, pushing, shoving, or wrestling when
not in play or sexual context.
Aggressive bite: Biting when not in play.
Crouch: Initiator lowers ventrum toward or to
substrate, or curls fetally on substrate.
Event terminated when normal or resting
posture resumed.
Inspect genitalia: Sniffing, touching, or intense visual
inspection of another's genitalia (IGO) or own
genitalia (IGS).
Sex solicit: Female purses lips and stares
at/follows/reaches toward male. Event
terminated when lips relax for at least 10
seconds.
. Copulation: Dorso-ventral mounting (DVC) or ventro-ventro
mounting (VVC) with pelvic thrusting. Event
terminated when either animal breaks body
contact. Note if intromission confirmed (very
difficult) or if semen observed afterward on
penis or vagina.
Masturbate: Rhythmic rubbing of genitalia with any part of
own body (e.g., finger or toe) or against
inanimate object.
Yawn: Per usual definition. Score each yawn.
Feces: Manipulation or mouthing of own or another's
feces. Note "eat" if fecal material actually
ingested.
Regurgitate: Vomiting into mouth, hand, or onto substrate.
Note if reingested.
Play behavior: Poking, tickling, wrestling, chasing in
nonaggressive manner.
.Goerke, B., Fleming, L., & Creel, M. (1987). Behavioral changes of
a
juvenile gorilla after
a transfer to a more
naturalistic
environment. Zoo
Biology, 6, 283-295.
Purpose: Investigation of one male juvenile lowland
gorilla before and after transfer to new
environment, particularly play and
stress-related behaviors.
Sampling: 10 minute periods from 10 am to 4 pm daily.
Two indices: play index: number of minutes
during which some play occurred in each 10
minute observation period. Frequency: is the
number of occurrences in each period of 19
selected play activities, divided into social
or solitary play.
Ethogram key words:Post-occupancy evaluation, Environment change,
Influence of, Abnormal/Stereotypic behavior.
Behaviors:
19 play activities:
Gentle wrestling:Hugging and rolling.
Rough wrestling:Standing up, more aggressive
behavior.
Chasing
Running alone
Playing with water
Slapping
Chest pounding
Clapping
Playing with branches
Swinging
Jumping
Tumbling
Spinning
Throwing
Manipulating objects
Moving of the body
Solitary sexual play
Social sexual play
Climbing
Grass play
Dirt play
Tree play
Stress-related behaviors:
Coprophagy
Regurgitation/reingestion
Self-clasping
.Gold, K. (a) Noise disturbance study, San Francisco Zoological
Gardens (currently affiliated with Zoo Atlanta).
Purpose:To study effects of construction noise on gorilla behavior.
Ethogram key words:Activity budgets/General behaviors, Noise
disturbance, Effects of.
Locations: Trees, rocks, quadrants 1-7, gorilla world, out
of sight.
Behaviors:
Environmental exploration: Investigation such as touching,
sniffing, close visual inspection of parts of
the exhibit, habitat, or cage other than
gorillas, loose objects, or toys. Does not
include aimless oral or manual activities.
Eat: Chewing/ingestion of food/browse.
Self directed behavior:Self groom, self clasp, self suck,
scratching, rubbing, etc.
Display behavior: Behaviors used by an animal to draw attention
to oneself, oftentimes communicating a specific
behavioral state in the displayer. Includes:
Chest beating
Ground or wall slapping
Drumming
Throwing objects
Foot stomping
Kicking
Clapping
Branch whipping
Strut walking
Pursed-lip tense face
Other
Vocalization: Scream, grunt, bark, etc.
Solitary behavior: Active physical motions such as in play but
without a partner, including rolling, sliding,
swinging, spinning, etc.
Contact: The focal animal is in direct physical contact
with another group member.
Social play: The focal animal is engaging in play behavior
with another group member (non-aggressive) such
as chasing, wrestling, mouthing, etc.
Aggression: Chase, hit, grab in aggressive manner
(different than social play).
Sexual behavior: Oral-genital contact, genital-genital contact,
digital-genital contact, masturbation.
Locomotion: Continuous horizontal or vertical movement of
at least 1 body length during the interval.
Rest: In an inactive state for a minimum of 10
seconds.
Miscellaneous behavior:Digging up enclosure, coprophagy,
regurgitation, regurgitation and reingestion.
. Gold, K. (b) Gorilla development study. Nationwide, 10/82-10/86.
Purpose: To investigate infant development in gorillas.
Sampling: One/zero sampling during 15 second intervals.
Trial=twelve 15 second intervals with a two
minute pause (five minutes total).
Session=Twelve trials (60 minutes). Focal
animal sampling.
Ethogram key words:Development.
Behaviors:
Approach:* Focal animal moves toward another (or another
toward focal) to within proximity.
Withdraw:* One animal retreats from another in a
non-passive fashion. Must be the result of an
approach.
Leave by other:** An animal leaves proximity of another, but not
as an result of an approach.
Touch:* Physical contact with non-focal animal other
than in categories below.
Lift/hold:** Weight support contact.
Carry:** Infant is transported by another animal.
Ventro-ventral contact:**Infant's ventrum in contact with other's.
Dorso-ventral contact:**Infant's ventrum in contact with other's
back, shoulders, or back of neck.
Proximate:** Within arm's reach of another (arm length of
larger animal).
Near:** Out of arm's reach of another, but within
fifteen feet.
Social play:* Physical play with a partner including "rough
and tumble" play such as tickling, wrestling,
chasing. Score TOUCH in addition if it occurs.
Genital inspect*: Close observation, touching, sniffing or
manipulation of genital area of self or other.
Sexual behavior*: Mounting, pelvic thrusting, mock copulation,
with a partner or inanimate object.
Nipple contact:** Infant's mouth on nipple, with or without
actual suckling visible.
Environmental exploration: Investigation such as touching,
sniffing, close visual inspection of parts of
exhibit, habitat or cage other than gorillas or
loose objects, toys. Does not include aimless
oral or manual activities.
Object contact: Contact with toys or any loose object.
Mouthing: Using tongue, lips, teeth to explore
environment, objects or animals. May include
biting, chewing, food or non-food. May be
during a play bout.
Solitary play: Active physical motions such as in play, but
without a partner. Includes rolling, sliding,
swinging, spinning, etc.
Self-directed behavior:Self clasp, self groom, self suck,
scratching, rubbing, etc.
Play face: Open mouthed, slack lipped "smile" exposing
teeth. May be accompanied by head shake,
patting, mouthing or play biting.
Locomotion: Continuous horizontal or vertical movement of
at least one body length during trial.
Rest: In an inactive state for five seconds or more.
Vocalization: Belch
Cough/grunt
Growl
Hoot
Bark
Scream
Whine/whinny
Pant
Display: Chest beat
Throwing
Slapping/tearing
Whipping
Thumping/Slamming
Strut Walk
Threat face
Out of sight: Observer is unable to see focal animal.
Contact with human: 
